On 8 September 2023 at 23:11 DST (22:11 UTC), an earthquake with a moment magnitude of 6.9 and maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent) struck Morocco's Al Haouz Province. The earthquake's epicenter was 73.4 km (45.6 mi) southwest of Marrakesh, near the town of Ighil and the Oukaïmeden ski resort in the Atlas Mountains. It occurred as a result of shallow oblique-thrust faulting beneath the mountain range. At least 2,960 deaths were reported, with most occurring outside Marrakesh. Damage was widespread, and historic landmarks in Marrakesh were destroyed. The earthquake was also felt in Spain, Portugal, and Algeria.
It is the strongest instrumentally recorded earthquake in Morocco, the deadliest in the country since the 1960 Agadir earthquake, and the second-deadliest earthquake of 2023 after the Turkey–Syria earthquakes. Its magnitude also makes it the largest earthquake on the African continent since the 2006 Mw 7.0 Mozambique earthquake and the largest in North Africa since the 1980 Mw 7.1 El Asnam earthquake. Over 2.8 million people from Marrakesh and areas surrounding the Atlas Mountains were affected, including 100,000 children. Following the earthquake, many countries offered humanitarian assistance, and Morocco announced a three-day period of national mourning.
The Atlas Mountains are an intracontinental mountain belt that extends 2,000 km (1,200 mi) from Morocco to Tunisia. These mountains formed from a collision during the Cenozoic. The mountain range reaches its highest elevation to the west, in Morocco. The High Atlas formed during the reactivation of an ancient rift from the Triassic. However rather than extensional forces, the reactivation compressed the rift feature due to the collisional feature in the north. Due to the unusually high topography of the Atlas range, mantle upwelling may have played a role in its orogeny. The crustal thickness beneath the range, 32–40 km (20–25 mi), was too thin to support the high elevations (>4,000 m (13,000 ft)); the expected crustal thickness was ~50 km (31 mi).
Seismicity in Morocco is concentrated in the country's northern region and the Alboran Sea. South of the Rif, seismic activity is sparse but spread across the Middle Atlas, High Atlas, and Anti-Atlas. Seismicity in the Saharan Atlas is limited, and absent in the Saharan region south of the belt; it is also less active eastwards in Algeria and Tunisia. Previously, the largest earthquake recorded in the Atlas Mountains was the Mw 5.9 earthquake that struck Agadir in 1960. Earthquakes in the Atlas Mountains display focal mechanisms of strike-slip, thrust or a combination of both (oblique-slip).
Earthquake
The Marrakesh–Safi earthquake is the strongest instrumentally recorded in Morocco's history, surpassed only by upper estimates of the 1755 Meknes earthquake, at Mw 6.5–7.0. It occurred at 19.0 km (11.8 mi) depth, and had a magnitude of Mww 6.8, according to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), while Morocco's seismic agency reported a focal depth of 8 km (5.0 mi) and magnitude of Mwp 7.2. The Global Centroid Moment Tensor (GCMT) reported a magnitude of Mw 6.9. The tremors were detected by monitoring stations as far away as Egypt. Witnesses said the shaking lasted for about 20 seconds. A magnitude 4.9 aftershock occurred 19 minutes after the mainshock, while a magnitude 4.5 aftershock was reported on 10 September.
The earthquake had a focal mechanism indicating oblique-thrust faulting beneath the High Atlas. The rupture occurred on a steep-dipping oblique-reverse fault striking northwest or a shallow-dipping oblique-reverse fault striking east. The USGS estimated the fault rupture area to be 30 km (19 mi) by 25 km (16 mi). Many east-west and northeast–southwest strike-slip and thrust faults occur in the High Atlas. Since 1900, there has not been a Mw 6.0 or larger earthquake within 500 km (310 mi) of the recent earthquake's epicenter; but nine Mw 5.0 and larger events have occurred to its east. A finite fault model by the USGS indicates rupture occurred on an east-northeast–west-southwest striking, north–northwest dipping thrust fault. Slip was mostly concentrated around the hypocentre within an elliptical slip patch measuring about 30 km (19 mi) long by 25 km (16 mi) wide. A maximum displacement of 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) was observed at 25 km (16 mi) depth while significant slip mainly occurred at 20–30 km (12–19 mi) depth; there was little to no slip close to the surface above 15 km (9.3 mi) depth. Generally, slip was observed at 15 km (9.3 mi) to 35 km (22 mi) depth.
In another finite fault model published by Italy's National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology, the focal depth was determined at 24.7 km (15.3 mi) beneath the High Atlas. The focal mechanism of this model displayed reverse and left-lateral faulting. Slip occurred in an elliptical area along an east-northeast–west-southwest trending fault dipping 69° north–northwest. Peak slip of 2 m (6 ft 7 in) occurred at 23.3 km (14.5 mi).
Geodetic modeling suggests the earthquake originated from within the lower crust and ruptured up to the middle crust, beneath the High Atlas. The deeper depth and greater remoteness from populated areas compared to the earthquake that struck Agadir in 1960 meant fewer casualties and damage. The range of depth where slip occurred is unusually deep for crustal earthquakes although general seismicity in the area is low. Mantle upwelling, responsible for the Atlas orogeny, may have played a role in triggering the earthquake. Fluid and magma from the upwelling may have injected fluid or magma into an existing fault, bringing it closer to failure and ultimately rupturing.
As a result, no surface faulting occurred hence the fault responsible could not be identified. The focal mechanism suggests rupture on a steep north-dipping plane or shallow south-dipping plane. The USGS finite fault is aligned with the former solution. Two dominant systems; the North and South Atlas faults; both shallow-dipping thrust faults, occur in the western High Atlas; both fault geometries do not align with that of the USGS finite fault on a steeply-dipping plane. Other unmapped faults within the range, including the Tizi n'Test Fault, are closer to the surface projection of the USGS finite fault. If the rupture occurred on the shallow south-dipping plane, a possible source is a low-angle detachment beneath the High Atlas. Geologists have previously interpreted low-angle faults in the region in past studies. For the steep north-dipping plane, the possible source are unmapped or blind thrust faults. The Tizi n'Test Fault is a north-dipping geological fault where no recent activity had been identified along the fault prior to the earthquake.
Ground effects
Vertical movement of the land surface detected by repeat observations of the Sentinel-1 satellite is consistent with movement on a blind thrust fault dipping north. An analysis of satellite data obtained from Daichi-2 by the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan revealed a 20 cm (7.9 in) surface uplift around the epicenter and 7 cm (2.8 in) of subsidence to the south. Surface deformation was observed around the epicenter across a 50 km (31 mi) area trending east–west, and 100 km (62 mi) trending north–south.
According to the United States Geological Survey's PAGER service, the earthquake had a maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). Intensity VIII (Severe) shaking was felt by approximately 157,000 residents, including the town of Azgour and villages surrounding the Atlas Mountains. Intensity VII (Very Strong) shaking was felt by over 811,000 people, with intensity VI (Strong) shaking felt by 3.2 million residents, including in the cities of Marrakesh, Taroudant and Ouarzazate. Shaking of intensity V (Moderate) was felt in Agadir, Beni Mellal, and Safi, with intensity IV (Light) shaking being felt in Casablanca. According to the European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre, it was also felt in Portugal, Spain, Mauritania, Algeria, Western Sahara and along the coast of the Strait of Gibraltar.
At least 2,960 people died and 5,674 were injured; over 2,500 of the injured were seriously hurt. Many fatalities occurred in remote locations south of Marrakesh. In Al-Haouz and Taroudant provinces, the death toll stood at 1,684 and 980, respectively. Forty-one people died in Ouarzazate; 202 died in Chichaoua and 18 deaths were recorded in Marrakesh. There were also fatalities in Casablanca, Agadir and Youssoufia. One person was injured by rockfalls in Imi N'Tala following a magnitude 3.5 aftershock on 13 September. At least 40,759 houses and 2,930 villages were damaged; 19,095 additional houses collapsed.
Four French nationals and a British cyclist were among the fatalities. Fifteen French nationals and some Americans were injured. In Moulay Brahim, where 40 people died, residents became trapped under collapsed buildings and volunteers made rescue attempts. At least 585 schools were damaged, seven teachers died and 39 others were injured.
The earthquake caused $7 billion in damage. Direct economic loss represented 0.24 of the nation's GDP, or $308 million. Some homes in older parts of Marrakesh and portions of the city walls collapsed, leaving families trapped beneath debris. At Jemaa el-Fnaa, a minaret of the Kharboush Mosque and parts of its walls collapsed, crushing vehicles below. The Kutubiyya Mosque was also damaged. Several buildings in the Medina of Marrakesh, a UNESCO World Heritage Site dating from the 12th century, also collapsed. Power cuts led to Internet service disruptions. The historic 12th-century Tinmel Mosque was extensively destroyed; a tower partially collapsed and walls fell. In Tinmel village, 15 people were killed.
The Interior Ministry said the majority of damage occurred away from cities and towns. Near the epicenter in the High Atlas, public television channel Al Aoula reported many buildings collapsed. Entire villages near the epicenter were levelled. At the earthquake's epicenter in the town of Al-Haouz, a collapsed house trapped its residents under rubble. At Amizmiz, a village near the epicenter, rescuers used their hands to sort through debris. Severe damage was reported throughout most of the town, and up to 2,000 people were feared to have died there. Nearly all of the 50 traditional houses in the village of Majat were destroyed and dozens of its inhabitants were killed. Ninety-percent of houses in Asni were destroyed. In the village of Anerni, 36 people died. Additional homes in towns near the epicenter collapsed partly or completely. Electricity and roads were also cut in some areas. In Essaouira, parts of facades fell off.
The towns of Tafeghaghte, Adassil and Imlil, and nearby villages surrounding Mount Toubkal were destroyed or severely damaged. An estimated 200 homes were destroyed in Ijoukak and between 80 and 100 residents, around half of its population, were killed. In Tafeghaghte, a village of 200 residents, 90 died and many remained missing. The village of Ighil, near the epicenter, was also severely damaged, however only one injury occurred, as nearly all of the village's residents were attending an outdoor wedding at the time of the earthquake. In Adassil, 32 students from the same school were killed. Outside Agadir, in the villages of Taqi and Tadrart, many homes were destroyed. At least 70 people died in the village of Imi N'Tala. In the city of Taroudant, over 400 people were killed. Several old or historic districts in the city were badly damaged. Isolated villages in the Ouirgane Valley still had no electrical and telecommunication services two days after the earthquake, while more than 30 people died in the main village. In the village of Douzrou, roughly 100 residents died. The condition in Tinzert was described as "one giant pile of rubble"; at least 22 deaths occurred. Moroccan television reported that more than "18,000 families" had been affected in Al-Haouz alone. Some residents accused authorities of preventing them from renovating their houses, predominantly constructed using mud bricks, with cement, in order to preserve their historic value and attract tourists.
Earthquake aftermath in Marrakesh and Moulay Brahim
Search and rescue
Ruins of the Tinmal Mosque
People in Marrakesh removed rubble by hand while awaiting heavy equipment. Many residents remained outdoors for fear of another earthquake. Posts on social media showed people evacuating a shopping centre, restaurants and apartment buildings. Residents of the city spent the first three nights outdoors; filling up roundabouts, car parks and a public square. Some businesses in the city reopened on 10 September as King Mohammed VI recommended commercial operations to continue. Unsafe portions of the city were sealed off by officials while tourists and locals continued to move about. In the capital, Rabat, 350 km (220 mi) north of the epicenter, and at Imsouane, a coastal town, residents left their homes.
The General Secretary of the Directorate General of Internal Affairs said officials and security teams assembled resources to supply aid and assess damage. The Moroccan army cleared one of the main roads to the worst-affected areas, allowing vital assistance to reach people. In Salé, trucks carried blankets, camp beds and lighting devices to the affected areas. Semi-trailers also carried supplies to reach these areas. Local channel 2M shared videos of emergency vehicles travelling along a dirt road. Rescue missions were disrupted as the roads through the mountainous region were congested with vehicles and fallen rocks. Collapsed buildings made from traditional mud brick, stone and rough wood complicated lowered the chances of survival as these materials disintegrated and amalgamated. The amalgamated rubble left limited air pockets for those trapped. In Al-Haouz Province, rocks were removed from roads to enable ambulances and aid to reach the affected areas. A highway in the Atlas Mountains, congested with ambulances, taxis and Red Cross members, was used to treat the injured; the severely wounded were transported to a hospital in Marrakesh. In remote areas that were difficult to access, the Royal Moroccan Armed Forces used helicopters to supply basic needs. The Moroccan Health Ministry mobilized more than 2,000 doctors and nurses to respond to the earthquake.
There was a surge in wounded people admitted to hospitals in Marrakesh. Injured people from outside Marrakesh also began to trickle into the city to get treatment. An appeal was made to the city's residents for blood donations. On the morning of 9 September, roughly 200 people, including tourists, visited a hospital to donate blood. Among those who donated were the Moroccan national football team. The initiative amassed 6,000 bags of blood within a day of the campaign launch. Damage assessments in Marrakesh revealed most of the city was relatively undamaged.
King Mohammed VI, who was reportedly in France at the time of the earthquake, authorised the deployment of the Royal Moroccan Army in various affected cities in order to help. He also declared three days of national mourning and ordered the creation of a relief commission to provide survivors with aid, and the opening of special bank accounts to allow donations. Following a meeting with the King on 11 September, Prime Minister Aziz Akhannouch, in his first remarks on the disaster, said that the government was committed to funding rebuilding and compensating those affected. King Mohammed VI also visited the Marrakesh University Hospital on 12 September, with state media saying that he met with earthquake victims and donated blood.
The Army set up a field hospital in Moulay Brahim. Rescue personnel used heavy equipment to recover survivors and bodies from debris. Survivors from the village began digging graves on a hill to bury the dead. A large tent was set-up in the village to house the homeless. Operations at Marrakesh Airport remained normal but two Ryanair flights from Marrakesh to Brussels and Beauvais, France, that were scheduled for 9 September were cancelled. British Airways replaced its regular aircraft to Marrakesh with a larger one to carry British nationals requesting repatriation.
International response
Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, Canada, Jordan, Japan, South Korea, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Spain, India, Algeria, Argentina, France, Germany, Iran, Israel, the Philippines, Portugal, Pakistan, Romania, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Oman, Turkey, Kuwait, the United Kingdom, the United States, the European Union, and the United Nations offered to provide assistance and support to Morocco. The Netherlands released €5 million in emergency aid, while the Red Cross Society of China gave the Moroccan Red Crescent $200,000 for emergency humanitarian assistance. The European Commission pledged 1 million euros ($1.07 million) to support relief efforts. Aerospace company Boeing announced a $300,000-donation to the American Red Cross and CARE International. Other world leaders and heads of states offered condolences.
The 18-hour delay for King Mohammed VI to make an official announcement on the earthquake received criticism socially. There was also criticism of the government's delay in making an official request for assistance and that more external aid was not allowed. Frustration also grew among international aid groups on standby as they had not received formal requests. The Moroccan government did not formally ask for foreign assistance; however, they accepted aid from Qatar, Spain, United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom. Officials said they have only approved the offer of four countries because "a lack of coordination could be counterproductive". They added that other offers may be approved when there is a need. On 17 September, the king sent formal messages to representatives of the four countries' search and rescue teams, thanking them for their assistance.
Benoît Payan, the mayor of Marrakesh's sister city Marseille, France, announced that he was sending firefighters to Morocco to help with rescue operations. The President of the Regional Council of Île-de-FranceValérie Pécresse sent $535,000 in aid. The French Embassy in Morocco [fr] opened a crisis unit hotline. A rescue crew was sent from Nice, while communities across the country offered more than 2 million euros ($2.1 million) in aid. The French government released 5 million euros ($5.4 million) in aid for NGOs operating in Morocco. Arnaud Fraisse, head of Secouristes Sans Frontières (Rescuers Without Borders), said its teams were prevented by Moroccan authorities from entering the country on 10 September. On 10 September, Minister for Digital Affairs Jean-Noël Barrot said that all French mobile phone operators had begun offering free calls and text messages to Morocco. In Belgium, a public memorial service for the victims of the earthquake was held in the city centre of Antwerp on 12 September, during which the Moroccan national anthem was played and a minute of silence for the dead was conducted. A six-man rescue team and four rescue dogs from De Rips in the Netherlands flew from Brussels to help in the search and rescue operations at the request of local residents. The town of Hilversum donated €20,000 to the victims. The Dutch Red Cross also launched a relief drive called Giro 6868 to help the victims, with about €3.8 million worth of aid being received. Norway, through the country's red cross, pledged NOK 10 million in aid to the victims.
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and King Abdullah II of Jordan ordered their governments to send aid to Morocco, while the United Arab Emirates's president Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan ordered the establishment of an air bridge to transport relief aid and other support, as did Saudi Arabia. Sultan Haitham bin Tarik of Oman ordered rescue teams and medical aid to be sent to Morocco on 10 September. On 12 September, Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi declared three days of national mourning for the victims of the earthquake and those of Storm Daniel in Libya on 10 and 11 September.
Algeria, for the first time since 2021, opened its airspace to Morocco to facilitate the arrival of humanitarian aid. The following day, Algeria proposed an 80-member specialised civil protection intervention team. Spain placed its Military Emergencies Unit, its other aid agencies, and its embassy in Rabat at Morocco's disposal. Two Spanish Air Force aircraft carrying 86 soldiers and eight search dogs were flown to Marrakesh after the Moroccan government made a bilateral appeal. The Czech Republic announced it was ready to send about 70 members of a rescue team, including nine doctors, after receiving an official request from the Moroccan government. Czech Defense Minister Jana Černochová said three military planes were prepared to transport the team.
The International Charter on Space and Major Disasters was activated by the United Nations Institute for Training and Research on behalf of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies to provide humanitarian satellite coverage. On 9 September, a team of 50 paramedics and personnel from Tunisia arrived. The team also brought search dogs, thermal imaging devices, a drone, and field hospital. A Qatari rescue team arrived in Morocco on 11 September. By 6 October, the Moroccan Red Crescent had supported over 50,000 people. They deployed over 290 volunteers across the affected provinces to assist in search and rescue efforts, preparing medical caravans and makeshift medical tents.
The Confederation of African Football postponed the qualifying match for the 2023 Africa Cup of Nations between Morocco and Liberia, which was due to be held in Agadir on 9 September. The qualifying match between the Republic of the Congo and The Gambia went ahead as scheduled in Marrakesh on 10 September. UEFA announced a moment of silence for the victims for all club and national team matches until 21 September.
UNESCO experts visited the Medina of Marrakesh on 9 September to take a first look at the damage. The organization said it would provide support according to the needs expressed, with Director General Audrey Azoulay specifying "whether it is a matter of surveying the damage in the fields of heritage and education, making buildings safe or preparing for reconstruction".
Recovery and assistance
On 14 September, the monarchy announced that 50,000 houses had been damaged by the earthquake, and pledged shelter and 30,000 dirhams ($3,000) to affected households, as well as reconstruction aid of 140,000 dirhams for collapsed homes and 80,000 for damaged ones. These payouts were processed via monthly instalments. The prime minister issued a statement stating that 63,800 households were actively receiving the monthly payouts of 2,500 dirhams ($257). The King also conferred the status of "Wards of the Nation" to all children orphaned by the earthquake.
The Red Cross announced the recovery process could take years; several villages near the epicenter in the remote mountainous region were completely flattened and/or inaccessible, with the paucity of infrastructure such railways, roads, and hospitals vis-à-vis the north of the country hampering relief efforts.
On 20 September, a five-year-long rehousing plan estimated at US$11.7 billion was announced after a discussion with King Mohammed VI, army and government personnel. It was projected to benefit 4.2 million people in the provinces of Al-Haouz, Chichaoua, Taroudant, Marrakech, Ouarzazate and Azilal. Besides rehousing, the project also aims to promote social and economic growth in the region through improved infrastructure. The government's budget, international assistance and a reserve scheme would supply the funds needed for the project. The country promised to provide aid of US$14,000 and $8,000 for collapsed and damaged homes, respectively. Compensation of US$38,000 and $21,000 would be provided for totally destroyed and partially destroyed homes, respectively. The government would also provide monthly support over a year of US$244 to affected families. By January 2024, the government said around 57,600 families had received the monthly support and more than 44,000 households received reconstruction aid.
Offers of assistance flooded in from countries and organisations including the United States, France, Turkey, the European Commission, the African Union, the International Monetary Fund, and Algeria, which maintains tumultuous relations with Morocco. Despite many offers to assist, Morocco only officially accepted aid from four countries—Spain, the United Kingdom, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. The president of the NGO Secouristes sans frontières, Arnaud Fraisse, stated, "We do not understand this situation of blocking on the part of the Moroccan government. There is no explanation at the moment." The Lebanese newspaper L'Orient-Le Jour declared Morocco, "despite being wounded, is snubbing international aid", forcing local officials to organise assistance.
On 11 September, Algeria prepared three planes equipped with all the necessary medication and food supplies, along with a team of 93 rescuers. This came after Justice Minister Abdellatif Ouahbi's statement on television affirming that Algeria's aid was favorable and that coordination with the Moroccan Ministry of Foreign Affairs was required. Shortly after, the Moroccan press criticised Ouahbi's behavior, prompting him to clarify a few hours later that his statements had been misunderstood and misinterpreted. The aid was refused as Morocco informed the Algerian Consul in Casablanca that they did not need the proposed assistance.
In contrast, Israeli NGOs provided aid upon arrival in Morocco without official approval from the Moroccan or Israeli governments. On 14 September, a scheduled German Red Cross flight from Leipzig to Morocco was suddenly suspended just before takeoff. In a statement, the organization said: "for reasons beyond our control and that of our partners in the Red Cross and Red Crescent movement." The flight carrying aid, tents and mats was requested by the Moroccan Red Crescent.
In response to these observations, the Moroccan Interior Ministry said on 10 September that its selective acceptance of aid was "based on a precise assessment of needs on the ground" but not an outright rejection of such offers.
Crisis management
The Spanish newspaper El Mundo criticised the delayed reaction of King Mohammed VI as he remained "silent for hours after the drama". The newspaper on the other hand quoted the French ambassador in Morocco, Christophe Lecourtier [fr], who justified the delay by stating that "the Moroccan authorities were conducting an evaluation of the situation", since "the southern region was isolated and far from urban centres". This statement was echoed by spokesperson of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Anne-Claire Legendre [fr], who added that "the needs must be established prior to making a request for help".
Another Spanish daily, El País, found the king's "silence" in the face of the tragedy "disturbing". L'Humanité expressed concern over the "dangerous inertia of Moroccan power". Having been in Paris since 1 September for medical reasons, King Mohammed VI returned to Rabat on 9 September, where images showed him in a working meeting.
Protests
On 25 October 2023, hundreds of people took to the streets of Amizmiz, one of the worst-hit towns, to protest against local and regional authorities over delays in the delivery of emergency aid and cash support for the affected families. The protests, arranged by the Amizmiz Earthquake Victims' Coordination, came after a worker's strike and repeated storms that had further worsened living conditions for the residents. After a meeting with local officials, the organization called off the demonstration, but many people still went ahead with the protests. Many families had also not received cash support which was promised by the government despite providing their contact details. They were also concerned about housing as winter was approaching. In January 2024, protests were held in Talat N'Yaaqoub and in Taroudant Province over delays in the delivery of financial relief. Another protest broke out in the town in late August over the slow rebuilding efforts, lack of state investment and social assistance.
Reconstruction
A year on, many residents continued to live in makeshift tents, guesthouses or their relatives' places. Ruins in some localities close to the epicenter were still present. Of the 55,000 new homes planned, only 1,000 were completed. The government's reconstruction campaign received backlash for its ineffectiveness; called "supervised self-construction", these reconstruction funds paid in instalments were intended to be used by recipients to source their own method of rebuilding. This system involves an appointed architect laying the blueprints for a new home, and residents can build these homes by themselves or hiring others. Residents complained that the lack of workers, construction materials, cost of materials and labour, and inaccessibility to some sites have made these solutions difficult to fulfil. Furthermore, government management flaws resulted in some residents still waiting for their payouts.
In Ait Bourd, an independent organisation, Amal Biladi, assisted in constructing 20 noualas, a type of earthquake-resistant and insulated temporary home. The chairman of Amal Biladi said the group aimed to complete another 30 noualas by the end of 2024. Some architects and authorities debated over the use of concrete over traditional earth and stone for reconstruction. Those architects argued that concrete homes presented ecological problems, departed from tradition and were costlier. They added that traditional earth and stone were earthquake-resistant and criticised the rushed nature of reconstruction; demolishing homes, even those that were only partly destroyed, and rebuilding the whole structure. Some damaged traditionally-constructed homes could be easily repaired instead of being torn down.
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