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21 Aug, 2019
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Fireclay Caverns

The Precipice Sandstone an Early Jurassic (Sinemurian to early Pliensbachian, with possible Hettangian levels) geologic formation of the Surat Basin in New South Wales and Queensland, eastern Australia, know due to the presence of abundant vertebrate remains & tracks. This unit includes the previously described Razorback beds. This unit represents a major, almost primary, source of hydrocarbons in the region, with a Potential CO2 reservoir of up to 70m. It was deposited on top of older sediments, like Bowen Basin units, in an unconformable manner, resting along the eastern basin margin and the Back Creek Group in the southern Comet Platform, while in other areas it directly overlies the Triassic Moolayember Formation & Callide Coal Measures, being deposited in a comparatively stable basin. Isopach maps of the Precipice Sandstone indicate two distinct areas of sediment accumulation, suggesting two separate depocentres filled from different source regions during the Sinemurian, with the Thomson orogeny and New England Orogen hinterlands as possible ones. This unit represented a fluvial-palustrine-lacustrine braided channel north-flowing succession, that seem to have debouch into a shallow restricted tidal/wave influenced marine embayment, marked at areas like Woleebee Creek. Paleoenvironment-wise, it represents a hinterland rich in vegetation, hinting at wet environments like swamps, where agglutinated foraminifera suggests marine flooding and drier conditions or the encroachment of seawater onto coastal areas.

Fireclay Caverns

The Fireclay Caverns were excavated by the Mount Morgan Mine to provide clay for its brickworks resulting in very large openings that measure between 4–12 metres in height from the cave floor. Excavation of the caverns ceased when the mine brickworks were decommissioned in the early 1900s. Erosion revealed dinosaur footprints (preserved as infills) being discovered in 1954. To date, nine different ceiling sections of the Fireclay Caverns have been recognised as containing dinosaur footprints. These have been dated to the Early Jurassic (Sinemurian) ~195 million years ago. Walkways and stairs had been constructed in 2010 to provide access to the dinosaur footprints as part of the mine site tours. The site was closed to access in 2011 due to ceiling erosion posing a significant risk to public safety.

The Fireclay Caverns were excavated to supply clay to brickworks of the Mount Morgan Mine. Clay was mined from within the caverns by pick and shovel, then transferred by underground rail to a brickworks lower in the Mount Morgan Mine site. Excavation from the caverns ceased when their clay was no longer required by the mine. After cavern excavations ceased, clay progressively fell from the cavern ceilings, revealing rock ceilings above. In 1954, HRE Staines, a Mount Morgan Limited geologist, identified dinosaur footprints in the rock ceilings. Over 300 such footprints have been identified on the cavern ceilings dated to the Early Jurassic (Sinemurian) ~195 million years ago. 2024 represents the 70th anniversary of when Ross Staines published Australia's first dinosaur trackway-consisting of four footprints. To celebrate, previously unpublished archival photographs (c. 1954) enabled a re-examination of Staines' original trackway, from which two additional footprints were revealed. Analyses indicated the trackmaker exhibited a walking gait, initially walking at ~3.8 km/h and then slowed to 1.8 km/h in association with a slight turn in direction.

After cavern excavations ceased, a colony of bent-wing bats began inhabiting the caverns. The sections of the caverns containing the bats are inaccessible to protect the bat habitat.

Biota

Invertebrates

Genus	Species	Type	Location	Material	Origin	Notes	Images
Asterosoma	A. isp.	Fodinichnia	Chinchilla 4 Borehole Condabri MB9-H Borehole Kenya East GW7 Borehole Moonie 31 Borehole Moonie 34 Borehole Reedy Creek MB3-H Borehole Roma 8 Borehole Taroom 17 Borehole West Wandoan 1 Borehole Woleebee Creek GW4 Borehole	Radiating bulb-like swelling burrows	Annelid worm, vermiform organism	Freshwater/Blackish burrow-like ichnofossils
Conichnus	C. isp.	Domichnia Cubichnia		trails	Gastropods	Freshwater/Blackish fillings-like ichnofossils
Cylindrichnus	C. isp.	Domichnia		Long, subconical, weakly curved burrows	Anemones Polychaete worms	Freshwater/Blackish burrow-like ichnofossils
Diplocraterion	D. parallelum	Domichnia		U-shaped burrows	Polychaeta annelids (Axiothella, Abarenicola and Scolecolepis) Sipunculans (Sipunculus) Enteropneustans (Balanoglossus) Echiurans (Urechis).	Marine-Mangroove Vertical, U-shaped, single-spreite Burrows; unidirectional or bidirectional spreite, generally continuous, rarely discontinuous. Most Diplocraterion show only protrusive spreiten, like the local ones, produced under predominantly erosive conditions where the organism was constantly burrowing deeper into the substrate as sediment was eroded from the top.	Diplocraterion parallelum diagram
Helminthopsis	H. isp.	Fodinichnia		Simple, unbranched, horizontal cylinder traces	Polychaetes Priapulids	Saltwater/Blackish burrow-like ichnofossils.	Example of Helminthopsis fossil
Lockeia	L. amygdaloides L. isp.	Cubichnia Domichnia		Dwelling traces	Bivalves	Marine, brackish or freshwater resting traces of Bivalves.
Naktodemasis	N. isp.	Fodinichnia		Straight to sinuous, unlined and unbranched burrows	Soil bugs Cicada nymphs Scarabaeid beetle larvae	Freshwater/Terrestrial burrow-like ichnofossils.
Palaeophycus	P. tubularis	Domichnia		Straight or gently curved tubular burrows.	Polychaetes Semiaquatic Insects (Orthoptera and Hemiptera) Semiaquatic and non-aquatic Beetles.	Freshwater/Blackish burrow-like ichnofossils.	Example of Palaeophycus fossil
Phycosiphon	P. isp.	Fodinichnia		Irregularly meandering burrows	Vermiform Animals	Freshwater burrow-like ichnofossils.
Planolites	P. montanus P. beverleyensis P. isp.	Pascichnia		Cylindrical or elliptical curved/tortuous trace fossils	Polychaetes Insects	Freshwater/Blackish burrow-like ichnofossils. Planolites is really common in all types of the Ciechocinek Formation deposits. It is referred to vermiform deposit-feeders, mainly Polychaetes, producing active Fodinichnia. It is controversial, since is considered a strictly a junior synonym of Palaeophycus.	Example of Planolites fossil
Scolicia	S. isp.	Cubichnia		Symmetrical trail or burrow	Gastropods	Freshwater/Blackish trail-like ichnofossils	Scolicia trails
Skolithos	S. isp.	Domichnia		Cylindrical strands with branches	Polychaetes Phoronidans	Blackish trace ichnofossils. Interpreted as dwelling structures of vermiform animals, more concretely the Domichnion of a suspension-feeding Worm or Phoronidan.
Siphonichnus	S. ophthalmoides	Domichnia		Cylindrical strands with branches	Polychaetes Phoronidans	Blackish trace ichnofossils. Interpreted as dwelling structures of vermiform animals, more concretely the Domichnion of a suspension-feeding Worm or Phoronidan.
Taenidium	T. serpentinum T. isp.	Fodinichnia		Unlined meniscate burrows	Deposit-feeding Sipuncula Polychaetes Phoronidans	Freshwater/Blackish burrow-like ichnofossils. Taenidium is a meniscate backfill structure, usually considered to be produced by an animal progressing axially through the sediment and depositing alternating packets of differently constituted sediment behind it as it moves forward.
Thalassinoides	T. isp.	Tubular Fodinichnia		Tubular Burrows	Thalassinidea Several Crustaceans (Anomura, Decapoda) Annelids (Polychaeta Sipuncula Dipnoi	Burrow-like ichnofossils. Large burrow-systems consisting of smooth-walled, essentially cylindrical components. Common sedimentary features are Thalassinoides trace fossils in the fissile marlstone to claystone intervals	Thalassinoides burrowing structures, with modern related fauna, showing the ecological convergence and the variety of animals that left this Ichnogenus.
Teichichnus	T. isp.	Fodinichnia		Vertical to oblique, unbranched or branched, elongated to arcuate spreite burrow	Polychaetes Dwelling Echiurans Dwelling Holothurians.	Saltwater/Blackish burrow-like ichnofossils. The overall morphology and details of the burrows, in comparison with modern analogues and neoichnological experiments, suggest Echiurans (spoon worms) or Holothurians (sea cucumbers) with a combined suspension- and deposit-feeding behaviour as potential producers.	Teichichnus burrows

Vertebrata

Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Anomoepodidae	Indeterminate	Biloela	Lower Member	Footprints	ornithischian footprints, unassigned to any concrete ichnogenus, but with resemblance with Anomoepodidae	Small ornithischians similar to Lesothosaurus may have left these footprints
Anomoepus	A. scambus A. ispp.	Carnarvon Gorge Fireclay Caverns Mount Morgan	Lower Member	Footprints	Ornithischian Footprints, originally suggested as quadrupedal theropod tracks, latter identified as of Ornithischian origin. Up to 130 tracks & 4 short trackways are know.
Eubrontes	E. isp.	Fireclay Caverns	Lower Member	Footprints	Medium-sized Theropod Footprints. Currently represent the largest of the prints at Mount Morgan
Grallator	G. isp.	Fireclay Caverns	Lower Member	Footprints	Small-sized Theropod Footprints
Plesiosauria	Indeterminate	Mount Morgan	Razorback Beds	QM F3983-QM F5500, single disarticulated skeleton preserved as natural moulds	A Freshwater Plesiosaur that cannot be confidently attributed to any particular plesiosaurian clade
Theropodipedia	Indeterminate	Callide Mine Mount Morgan	Lower Member	Footprints	Possible theropod footprints, unassigned to any concrete ichnogenus. One morphotype includes large tridactyl prints, up to 24 cm.	Small theropods similar to Procompsognathus may have left these footprints
	"Indet. 2"	Fireclay Caverns
	"Indet. 3"	Fireclay Caverns
Wintonopus	W. isp.	Fireclay Caverns	Lower Member	Footprints	Small-sized Ornithischian Footprints

Bryophyta

Genus	Species	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Annulispora	A. folliculosa A. microannulata	Razorback Beds	Spores	Incertae sedis; affinities with Bryophyta.
Cingutriletes	C. spp.			Incertae sedis; affinities with Bryophyta.
Distalanulisporites	D. punctus D. verrucosus			Affinities with the family Sphagnaceae in the Sphagnopsida.
Foraminisporis	F. spp.			Affinities with the family Notothyladaceae in the Anthocerotopsida.
Nevesisporites	N. vallatus			Incertae sedis; affinities with Bryophyta. This spore is found in Jurassic sediments associated with the polar regions.
Polycingulatisporites	P. crenulatus P. densatus P. mooniensis			Affinities with the family Notothyladaceae in the Anthocerotopsida. Hornwort spores.	Extant Notothylas specimens
Stereisporites	S. antiquasporites S. perforatus			Affinities with the family Sphagnaceae in the Sphagnopsida. "Peat moss" spores, related to genera such as Sphagnum that can store large amounts of water.	Extant Sphagnum specimens

Lycophyta

Genus	Species	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Apiculatisporis	A. spp.	Razorback Beds	Spores	Incertae sedis; affinities with Lycopodiopsida
Lycopodiumsporites	L. austroclavatidites L. rosewoodensis			Affinities with the family Lycopodiaceae in the Lycopodiopsida. Lycopod spores, related to herbaceous to arbustive flora common in humid environments.	Extant Lycopodium specimens
Neoraistrickia	N. truncata N. spp.			Affinities with the Selaginellaceae in the Lycopsida.

Pteridophyta

Genus	Species	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Calamospora	C. spp.	Razorback Beds	Spores	Affinities with the Calamitaceae in the Equisetales. Horsetails are herbaceous flora found in humid environments and are flooding-tolerant. In the sections of the formation such as Korsodde, this genus has small peaks in abundance in the layers where more Equisetites stems are found.	Reconstruction of the genus Calamites, found associated with Calamospora

Pteridophyta

Genus	Species	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Annulispora	A. microannulata A. folliculosa	Razorback Beds	Spores	Affinities with the genus Saccoloma, type representative of the family Saccolomataceae. This fern spore resembles those of the living genus Saccoloma, being probably from a pantropical genus found in wet, shaded forest areas.	Extant Saccoloma specimens; Annulispora probably comes from similar genera or maybe a species in the genus
Baculatisporites	B. comaumensis			Affinities with the family Osmundaceae in the Polypodiopsida. Near fluvial current ferns, related to the modern Osmunda regalis.	Extant Osmunda specimens; Baculatisporites and Todisporites probably come from similar genera or maybe a species from the genus
Camarozonosporites	C. spp.			Incertae sedis; affinities with the Pteridophyta
Cyathidites	C. australis C. minor			Affinities with the family Cyatheaceae in the Cyatheales. Arboreal fern spores.	Extant Cyathea
Densoisporites	D. spp			Incertae sedis; affinities with the Pteridophyta
Dictyophyllidites	D. mortoni			Affinities with the family Matoniaceae in the Gleicheniales.
Duplexisporites	D. gyratus			Incertae sedis; affinities with the Pteridophyta
Foraminisporis	F. tribulosus			Incertae sedis; affinities with the Pteridophyta
Foveosporites	F. sp.			Incertae sedis; affinities with the Pteridophyta
Heliosporites	H. spp			Incertae sedis; affinities with the Pteridophyta
Indusiisporites	I. parvisaccatus			Incertae sedis; affinities with the Pteridophyta
Osmundacidites	O. wellmanii			Affinities with the family Osmundaceae in the Polypodiopsida. Near fluvial current ferns, related to the modern Osmunda regalis.
Rugulatisporites	R. spp.			Affinities with the family Osmundaceae in the Polypodiopsida. Near fluvial current ferns, related to the modern Osmunda regalis.

Peltaspermales

Genus	Species	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes
Alisporites	A. australis A. lowoodensis A. sp.	Razorback Beds	Pollen	Affinities with the families Peltaspermaceae, Corystospermaceae or Umkomasiaceae in the Peltaspermales. Pollen of uncertain provenance that can be derived from any of the members of the Peltaspermales. The lack of distinctive characters and poor conservation make this pollen difficult to classify. Arboreal to arbustive seed ferns.
Alisporites	A. australis A. lowoodensis A. sp.
Vitreisporites	V. contectus V. pallidus			From the family Caytoniaceae in the Caytoniales. Caytoniaceae are a complex group of Mesozoic fossil floras that may be related to both Peltaspermales and Ginkgoaceae.

Conifers

Genus	Species	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Classopollis	C. classoides C. simplex	Razorback Beds	Pollen	Affinities with the Hirmeriellaceae in the Pinopsida.
Perinopollenites	P. sp.			Affinities with the family Cupressaceae in the Pinopsida. Pollen that resembles that of extant genera such as the genus Actinostrobus and Austrocedrus, probably derived from dry environments.	Extant Austrocedrus
Podosporites	P. spp.			Affinities with the family Podocarpaceae. Pollen from diverse types of Podocarpaceous conifers, that include morphotypes similar to the low arbustive Microcachrys and the medium arbustive Lepidothamnus, likely linked with Upland settings	Extant Microcachrys

References

^ Vickers-Rich, Patricia (1991). Vertebrate palaeontology of Australasia. Lilydale, Vic: Pioneer Design Studio in cooperation with the Monash University Publications Committee, Melbourne. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.60647. ISBN 0-909674-36-1.
^ "Precipice Sandstone". Australian Stratigraphic Units Database. Geoscience Australia. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
^ Exon, N.F. (1976). "Geology of the Surat Basin in Queensland" (PDF). Bureau of Mineral Resources, Australia. Bulletin. 166 (2): 1–235.
^ Murray, C.G.; Blake, P.R.; Crouch, S.B.S.; Hayward, M.A.; Robertson, A.D.C.; Simpson, G.A. (2012). "Geology of the Yarrol Province central coastal Queensland". Queensland Geology. 13 (1): 1–675.
^ Farquhar, S. M.; Dawson, G. K. W.; Esterle, J. S.; Golding, S. D. (2013-02-01). "Mineralogical characterisation of a potential reservoir system for CO₂ sequestration in the Surat Basin". Australian Journal of Earth Sciences. 60 (1): 91–110. Bibcode:2013AuJES..60...91F. doi:10.1080/08120099.2012.752406. ISSN 0812-0099.
^ Sobczak, Kasia; La Croix, Andrew D.; Esterle, Joan; Hayes, Phil; Holl, Heinz-Gerd; Ciesiolka, Rachael; Crowley, James L.; Allen, Charlotte M. (2022). "Geochronology and sediment provenance of the Precipice Sandstone and Evergreen Formation in the Surat Basin, Australia: Implications for the palaeo-geography of eastern Gondwana". Gondwana Research. 111: 189–208. Bibcode:2022GondR.111..189S. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2022.08.003. ISSN 1342-937X.
^ Bianchi, V.; Zhou, F.; Pistellato, D.; Martin, M.; Boccardo, S.; Esterle, J. (2018-04-26). "Mapping a coastal transition in braided systems: an example from the Precipice Sandstone, Surat Basin". Australian Journal of Earth Sciences. 65 (4): 483–502. Bibcode:2018AuJES..65..483B. doi:10.1080/08120099.2018.1455156. ISSN 0812-0099.
^ Martin, M.; Wakefield, M.; Bianchi, V.; Esterle, J.; Zhou, F. (2017-12-11). "Evidence for marine influence in the Lower Jurassic Precipice Sandstone, Surat Basin, eastern Australia". Australian Journal of Earth Sciences. 65 (1): 75–91. doi:10.1080/08120099.2018.1402821. ISSN 0812-0099.
^ Romilio, Anthony; Dick, Roslyn; Skinner, Heather; Millar, Janice (2020-02-13). "Archival data provides insights into the ambiguous track-maker gait from the Lower Jurassic (Sinemurian) Razorback beds, Queensland, Australia: evidence of theropod quadrupedalism?". Historical Biology. 33 (9): 1573–1579. doi:10.1080/08912963.2020.1720014. ISSN 0891-2963.
^ Staines, HRE (1954). "Dinosaur footprints at Mount Morgan". Queensland Government Mining Journal. 55 (623): 483–485.
^ "Queensland Government: Mines and Energy: Mount Morgan Mine Site Quarterly Update: April-June 2010" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
^ "Queensland Government: Mines and Energy: Mount Morgan Mine Rehabilitation Project: Project Summary" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
^ Saini, N (2005). Geology and palaeo-ichnology of the Razorback beds, Mount Morgan, Queensland [Thesis]. University of Wollongong.
^ Romilio, Anthony (2020-04-20). "Additional notes on the Mount Morgan dinosaur tracks from the Lower Jurassic (Sinemurian) Razorback beds, Queensland, Australia". Historical Biology. 33 (10): 2005–2007. doi:10.1080/08912963.2020.1755853. ISSN 0891-2963. S2CID 218778298.
^ Romilio, Anthony; Dick, Roslyn; Skinner, Heather; Millar, Janice (2024-02-21). "Uncovering hidden footprints: revision of the Lower Jurassic (Sinemurian) Razorback Beds – home to Australia's earliest reported dinosaur trackway". Historical Biology: 1–8. doi:10.1080/08912963.2024.2320184. ISSN 0891-2963.
^ La Croix, A. D.; Wang, J.; He, J.; Hannaford, C.; Bianchi, V.; Esterle, J.; Undershultz, J. R. (2019). "Widespread nearshore and shallow marine deposition within the Lower Jurassic Precipice Sandstone and Evergreen Formation in the Surat Basin, Australia". Marine and Petroleum Geology. 109 (3): 760–790. Bibcode:2019MarPG.109..760L. doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2019.06.048. hdl:10289/12877. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
^ Romilio, Anthony (2020-11-12). "Evidence of ornithischian activity from the Lower Jurassic (Hettangian–Sinemurian) Precipice Sandstone, Callide Basin, Queensland, Australia — preliminary findings". Historical Biology. 33 (11): 3041–3045. doi:10.1080/08912963.2020.1846033. ISSN 0891-2963.
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^ Romilio, Anthony; Dick, Roslyn; Skinner, Heather; Millar, Janice (2020-02-13). "Archival data provides insights into the ambiguous track-maker gait from the Lower Jurassic (Sinemurian) Razorback beds, Queensland, Australia: evidence of theropod quadrupedalism?". Historical Biology. 33 (9): 1573–1579. doi:10.1080/08912963.2020.1720014. ISSN 0891-2963.
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^ Playford, G.; Cornelius, Kenneth D. (1967). "Palynological and lithostratigraphic features of the Razorback Beds, Mount Morgan District, Queensland". Papers Department of Geology, University of Queensland: 81–94.

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Fireclay Caverns