List Of Cardinal-nephews
A cardinal-nephew is a cardinal elevated by a pope who was his uncle, or more generally, his relative. The practice of creating cardinal-nephews originated in the Middle Ages, and reached its apex during the 16th and 17th centuries. From the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) until Pope Innocent XII's anti-nepotism bull, Romanum decet pontificem (1692), nearly every pope who appointed cardinals appointed at least one relative to the College of Cardinals, including every Renaissance-era pope.
Pope Benedict VIII elevated his cousin, brother, and nephew to the cardinalate.
Pope John XIX, the first cardinal-nephew elected pope 
Pope Innocent III created an unprecedented four cardinal-nephews.
Pope Alexander IV, a cardinal-nephew of Gregory IX, himself a cardinal-nephew of Innocent III, who was a cardinal-nephew of Clement III
The Avignon Papacy (1309–1377) produced an unprecedented number of cardinal-nephews. 
Pope Clement V, the first Avignon Pope, created an unprecedented four or five cardinal-nephews on the same day. 
Pope Clement VI created more cardinal-nephews than any other pontiff. 
Jean de Murat de Cros
Paul II, cardinal-nephew of Eugene IV, who was cardinal-nephew of Gregory XII 
Pope Pius II names his nephew Francesco Piccolomini (future Pope Pius III) cardinal.
Pope Leo X with his cousins Giulio de' Medici (left, future Pope Clement VII) and Luigi de' Rossi (right), whom he appointed as cardinals 
Giovanni Salviati 
Pope Paul III with his cardinal-nephew Cardinal Alessandro Farnese (left) and his other grandson (right), Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma 
Ranuccio Farnese was made cardinal by Paul III at the age of 15. 
Charles Borromeo, one of the few canonized cardinal-nephews
The tomb of Pope Gregory XV and his cardinal-nephew Ludovico Ludovisi 
Camillo Astalli-Pamphili, painted by Velasquez
Romualdo Braschi-Onesti
Giuseppe Pecci
Although nephews were the most common relation to be elevated to the College, other family members include (legitimate, illegitimate, or adopted) sons and grandsons, brothers, grandnephews, cousins and even uncles. At least 15, and possibly as many as 19 cardinal-nephews were later elected pope (Gregory IX, Alexander IV, Adrian V, Gregory XI, Boniface IX, Innocent VII, Eugene IV, Paul II, Alexander VI, Pius III, Julius II, Leo X, Clement VII, Benedict XIII, and Pius VII, perhaps also John XIX, Benedict IX, if they were really promoted cardinals, as well as Innocent III and Benedict XII, if in fact they were related to their elevators). One became antipope (John XXIII), and two or three were canonized (Charles Borromeo, Guarinus of Palestrina, and perhaps Anselm of Lucca, if in fact he was really elected cardinal).
Similarly created cardinals include cardinal-nephews of antipopes and papal relatives made cardinals by other popes.
Notes on symbols
Because statements concerning the familial ties of popes and cardinals prior to 14th century are often of much later origin, some sources regard their factual accuracy as dubious. Thus, individuals are marked with:
, when the existence of the familial relationship is disputed, or
, when their promotion to the cardinalate is disputed.
Occupants of the curial office of the Cardinal Nephew are denoted with †.
11th century
| Elevating pope | Cardinal-nephew | Date of elevation | Relationship | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Benedict VIII (1012–1024) |
Lotario (or Loctarius), seniore |  circa 1015
|
Cousin | |
| Giovanni | ,Unknown
|
Brother | Future Pope John XIX | |
| Teofilatto | ,Unknown
|
Nephew | Future Pope Benedict IX | |
| John XIX (1024–1032) |
Pietro | 1024 | Cousin | |
| Benedict IX (1032–1044, 1045, 1047–1048) |
Giovanni | before April 1044 | Nephew | |
| Alexander II (1061–1073) |
St. Anselm of Lucca | Circa 1062
|
Brother or nephew | |
| Urban II (1088–1099) |
Odon de Châtillon | Circa 1095 | Nephew |
12th century
| Elevating pope | Cardinal-nephew | Date of elevation | Relationship | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Callixtus II (1119–1124) |
Etienne de Bar | 1120
|
Nephew | |
| Innocent II (1130–1143) |
Gregorio Papareschi | 1134/1137 |  Nephew
|
|
| Pietro Papareschi | 17 September 1143 | Brother
|
||
| Lucius II (1144–1145) |
Ubaldo | 19 May 1144 | Cousin or nephew
|
|
| St. Guarinus of Palestrina | 22 December 1144 | Relative | ||
| Adrian IV (1154–1159) |
Boso Breakspeare | 21 December 1156 | Nephew
|
|
| Lucius III (1181–1185) |
Uberto Allucingoli | Circa 1182
|
Nephew | |
| Gerardo | 18 December 1182 | Nephew
|
||
| Clement III (1187–1191) |
Lotario de' Conti | 22 September 1190 | Unknown
|
Future Pope Innocent III |
| Niccolò Scolari | Nephew | |||
| Celestine III (1191–1198) |
Bobo | 20 February 1193 | Relative | |
| Giovanni di San Paolo | Nephew
|
|||
| Innocent III (1198–1216) |
Ugolino dei Conti di Segni | 19 December 1198 | Cousin | Future Pope Gregory IX |
| Giovanni dei Conti di Segni | 3 June 1200 | Cousin | ||
| Ottaviano dei Conti di Segni | 27 May 1206 | Cousin | ||
| Stefano Conti | 5 March 1216 | Unknown |
13th century
| Elevating pope | Cardinal-nephew | Date of elevation | Relationship | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gregory IX (1227–1241) |
Rinaldo Conti | 18 September 1227 | Unknown | Future Pope Alexander IV |
| Niccolò dei Conti di Segni | December 1228
|
Nephew | ||
| Riccardo Annibaldeschi di Molaria | 1238 | Unknown | ||
| Innocent IV (1243–1254) |
Guglielmo Fieschi | 28 May 1244 | Nephew | |
| Ottobono Fieschi | December 1251 | Nephew | Future Pope Adrian V | |
| Urban IV (1261–1264) |
Anchero Pantaleone | 22 May 1262 | Nephew | |
| Gregory X (1271–1276) |
Vicedomino de Vicedominis | 3 June 1273 | Unknown | It is a widely disseminated misconception that he was elected but died before proclamation. |
| Giovanni Visconti | 1275
|
Unknown | ||
| Nicholas III (1277–1280) |
Latino Malabranca Orsini | 12 March 1278 | Nephew | |
| Giordano Orsini | Brother | |||
| Honorius IV (1285–1287) |
Giovanni Boccamazza | 22 December 1285 | Relative | |
| Nicholas IV (1288–1292) |
Pietro Colonna | 16 May 1288 | Relative
|
|
| Boniface VIII (1294–1303) |
Benedetto II Caetani | between 23 January and 13 May 1295 | Nephew | |
| Giacomo Tomasi Caetani (Iacopo Tommasi) | 17 December 1295 | Unknown | ||
| Francesco Caetani | Unknown | |||
| Leonardo Patrasso | 2 March 1300 | Uncle |
14th century
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| Elevating pope | Cardinal-nephew | Date of elevation | Relationship | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clement V (1305–1314) |
Berengar Fredol the Elder | 15 December 1305 | Nephew, son of Guillaume de Frédol
|
|
| Arnaud Frangier de Chanteloup | Close relative, possible nephew | |||
| Arnaud de Pellegrue | Relative, possible nephew | |||
| Raymond de Got | Nephew, son of Arnaud Garcie de Got | |||
| Guillaume Arrufat | Relative, possible nephew | |||
| Raymond Guillaume des Forges | 19 December 1310 | Nephew, son of Marquise de Got | ||
| Bernard Jarre (or Garve) | Relative | |||
| Arnaud d'Aux | 23 December 1312 | Relative | ||
| Berengar Fredol the Younger | Grandnephew
|
|||
| John XXII (1316–1334) |
Jacques de Via | 17 December (or 18), 1316 | Nephew, son of Marie Duese | |
| Gauscelin Jean d'Euse | Relative | |||
| Bertrand du Pouget | Relative, possible nephew
|
|||
| Arnaud de Via | 20 June 1317 | Nephew, son of Marie Duese | ||
| Raymond Le Roux | 19 December (or 20), 1320 | Close relative, possible nephew
|
||
| Jacques Fournier | 18 December 1327 | Unknown relative
|
Future Pope Benedict XII) | |
| Imbert Dupuis | Relative, possible nephew
|
|||
| Benedict XII (1334–1342) |
Guillaume Court | 18 December 1338 | Relative, mother's side
|
|
| Clement VI (1342–1352) | ||||
| Aymeric de Chalus | 20 September 1342 | Cousin | ||
| Hugues Roger | Brother | |||
| Adhémar Robert | Cousin or nephew | |||
| Gérard Lagarde (or Domar) | Cousin | |||
| Bernard de la Tour | Nephew | |||
| Guillaume de la Jugée (Guillaume II Roger) | Nephew, son of Guillaumette Rogier | |||
| Nicolas de Besse | 19 May 1344 | Nephew, son of Dauphine Roger | ||
| Pierre-Roger de Beaufort | 28 May (or 29), 1348 | Nephew | Future Pope Gregory XI | |
| Raymond de Canillac | 17 December 1350 | Nephew | ||
| Guillaume d'Aigrefeuille, seniore | Cousin | |||
| Pierre du Cros | Nephew or cousin | |||
| Innocent VI (1352–1362) |
Andouin Aubert | 15 February 1353 | Nephew, son of Guy Aubert | |
| Pierre de Salvete Monteruc | 23 December 1356 | Nephew of mother's side | ||
| Etienne Aubert, iuniore | 17 September 1361 | Grandnephew | ||
| Urban V (1362–1370) |
Angelic de Grimoard | 18 September 1366 | Brother | |
| Pierre d'Estaing | 7 June 1370 | Relative | ||
| Gregory XI (1370–1378) |
Jean de Murat de Cros | 30 May 1371 | Nephew or cousin | |
| Jean de La Tour | Brother-in-law of niece | |||
| Pierre de la Jugée (or Jugie) | 20 December 1375 | Cousin | ||
| Gui de Maillesec | Nephew on mother's side | |||
| Gérard du Puy | Cousin or nephew | |||
| Urban VI (1378–1389) |
Francesco Moricotti Prignani | 18 September 1378 | Nephew | |
| Filippo Carafa della Serra | 18 September 1378 | Relative | ||
| Francesco Renzio | 21 December 1381 | Distant relative | ||
| Pietro Tomacelli | Distant relative | Future Pope Boniface IX | ||
| Tommaso Orsini | ca.1383 | Relative | ||
| Rinaldo Brancaccio | 17 December 1384 | Relative | ||
| Marino Bulcani | Distant relative, nephew of cardinal Francesco Renzio | |||
| Boniface IX (1389–1404) |
Enrico Minutoli | 18 December 1389 | Distant relative | |
| Cosimo Migliorati | Distant relative | Future Pope Innocent VII (1404–1406) | ||
| Baldassare Cossa | 27 February 1402 | Relative | Future Antipope John XXIII |
15th century
| Elevating pope | Cardinal-nephew | Date of elevation | Relationship | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Innocent VII (1404–1406) |
Giovanni Migliorati | 12 June 1405 | Nephew | |
| Gregory XII (1406–1415) |
Antonio Correr | 9 May 1408 | Nephew, son of Filippo Correr | |
| Gabriele Condulmer | Nephew, son of Beriola Correr | Future Pope Eugene IV | ||
| Angelo Barbarigo | 19 September 1408 | Nephew, son of Caterina Correr | ||
| Martin V (1417–1431) |
Prospero Colonna | 24 May 1426 published 8 November 1430 |
Nephew, son of Lorenzo Onofrio Colonna | |
| Eugene IV (1431–1447) |
Francesco Condulmer | 19 September 1431 | Nephew | |
| Pietro Barbo | 1 July 1440 | Nephew, son of Polissena Condulmer | Future Pope Paul II | |
| Nicholas V (1447–1455) |
Filippo Calandrini | 20 December 1448 | Half-brother | |
| Callixtus III (1455–1458) |
Luis Juan del Mila y Borja | 20 February 1456 published 17 September 1456 |
Nephew | |
| Rodrigo Borja | Nephew | Future Pope Alexander VI | ||
| Pius II (1458–1464) |
Francesco Piccolomini | 5 March 1460 | Nephew | Future Pope Pius III |
| Niccolò Fortiguerra | Relative on mother's side | |||
| Giacomo Ammannati-Piccolomini | 18 December 1461 | Adopted | ||
| Paul II (1464–1471) |
Marco Barbo | 18 September 1467 | Unknown | |
| Giovanni Battista Zeno | 21 November 1468 | Unknown | ||
| Giovanni Michiel | Unknown | |||
| Sixtus IV (1471–1484) |
Pietro Riario | 16 December 1471 | Unknown | |
| Giuliano della Rovere | Unknown | Future Pope Julius II | ||
| Girolamo Basso della Rovere | 10 December 1477 | Unknown | ||
| Raffaele Riario | Unknown | |||
| Cristoforo della Rovere | Unknown | |||
| Domenico della Rovere | 10 February 1478 | Unknown | ||
| Innocent VIII (1484–1492) |
Lorenzo Cybo de Mari | 9 March 1489 | Unknown | |
| Giovanni de' Medici | Relative | Future Pope Leo X | ||
| Pantaleone Cybo | 9 March 1489 Never published |
Nephew | ||
| Niccolò Cybo | Nephew | |||
| Alexander VI (1492–1503) |
Juan de Borja Lanzol de Romaní, el mayor | 31 August 1492 | Son of cousin | |
| Cesare Borgia | 20 September 1493 | Son | Resigned 18 August 1498 | |
| Giuliano Cesarini, iuniore | Brother-in-law of daughter, Gerolama Borgia | |||
| Juan de Borja Lanzol de Romaní, el menor | 19 February 1496 | Grandnephew | ||
| Amanieu d'Albret | 20 March 1500 | Brother-in-law of Cesare Borgia | ||
| Pedro Luis de Borja Lanzol de Romaní | Grandnephew | |||
| Francisco de Borja | 28 September 1500 | Disputed relationship | ||
| Juan de Vera | Relative | |||
| Juan Castellar y de Borja | 31 May 1503 | Cousin of Juan de Borja Lanzol de Romaní, el mayor | ||
| Francisco Lloris y de Borja | Grandnephew |
16th century
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| Elevating pope | Cardinal-nephew | Date of elevation | Relationship | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Julius II (1503–1513) |
Clemente Grosso della Rovere | 29 November 1503 | Unknown | |
| Galeotto Franciotti della Rovere | Unknown | |||
| Marco Vigerio della Rovere | 1 December 1505 | Distant relative | ||
| Leonardo Grosso della Rovere | Cousin | |||
| Sisto Gara della Rovere | 11 September 1507 | Unknown | ||
| Leo X (1513–1521) |
Giulio de' Medici | 23 September 1513 | Cousin | Future Pope Clement VII |
| Innocenzo Cybo | Unknown | |||
| Luigi de' Rossi | 1 July 1517 | Cousin | ||
| Francesco Armellini Pantalassi de' Medici | Adopted as son | |||
| Franciotto Orsini | Son of Orso Orsini di Monteredondo | |||
| Giovanni Salviati | Son of Lucrezia de' Medici | |||
| Niccolò Ridolfi | Son of Contessina de' Medici | |||
| Clement VII (1523–1534) |
Niccolò Gaddi | 3 May 1527 | Related through Catherine de' Medici | |
| Ippolito de' Medici | 10 January 1529 | Illegitimate son of Giuliano de' Medici | ||
| Paul III (1534–1549) |
Alessandro Farnese | 18 December 1534 | Grandson | |
| Guido Ascanio Sforza di Santa Fiora | Grandson | |||
| Niccolò Caetani | 22 December 1536 published 13 March 1538 |
Son of cousin | ||
| Tiberio Crispo | 19 December 1544 | Brother, on his mother's side, of pope's daughter Costanza Farnese, possibly natural son of Paul III | ||
| Ranuccio Farnese | 16 December 1545 | Grandson | ||
| Giulio Feltre della Rovere | 27 July 1547 | Relative | ||
| Julius III (1550–1555) |
Innocenzo Ciocchi Del Monte | 30 May 1550 | Adopted | |
| Cristoforo Guidalotti Ciocchi del Monte | 20 November 1551 | Cousin | ||
| Fulvio della Corgna | Nephew on his mother's side | |||
| Roberto de Nobili | 22 December 1553 | Grandnephew | ||
| Girolamo Simoncelli | Grandnephew | |||
| Paul IV (1555–1559) |
Carlo Carafa | 7 June 1555 | Unknown | |
| Diomede Carafa | 20 December 1555 | Relative | ||
| Alfonso Carafa | 15 March 1557 | Grandnephew | ||
| Pius IV (1559–1565) |
Giovanni Antonio Serbelloni | 31 January 1560 | Cousin of Charles Borromeo | |
| St. Charles Borromeo | Nephew | |||
| Mark Sittich von Hohenems (or Marco Sittico d'Altemps | 26 February 1561 | Nephew | ||
| Alfonso Gesualdo | Brother-in-law of Charles Borromeo | |||
| Gianfrancesco Gàmbara | Stepbrother of Charles Borromeo | |||
| Francesco Alciati | 12 March 1565 | Relative | ||
| Guido Luca Ferrero | Cousin of Charles Borromeo | |||
| Gianfrancesco Commendone | Relative | |||
| Pius V (1566–1572) |
Michele Bonelli† | 6 March 1566 | Grandnephew | |
| Girolamo Rusticucci | 17 May 1570 | Relative | ||
| Gregory XIII (1572–1585) |
Filippo Boncompagni† | 2 June 1572 | Unknown | |
| Filippo Guastavillani | 5 July 1574 | Unknown | ||
| Francesco Sforza di Santa Fiora | 12 December 1583 | Relative through his sister Costanza, wife of pope's son | ||
| Sixtus V (1585–1590) |
Alessandro Peretti di Montalto† | 13 May 1585 | Unknown | |
| Gregory XIV (1590–1591) |
Paolo Emilio Sfondrati† | 19 December 1590 | Unknown | |
| Flaminio Piatti | 6 March 1591 | Relative | ||
| Innocent IX (1591) |
Giovanni Antonio Facchinetti de Nuce† | 18 December 1591 | Grandnephew | |
| Clement VIII (1592–1605) |
Pietro Aldobrandini† | 17 September 1593 | Nephew | |
| Cinzio Passeri Aldobrandini† | Nephew | |||
| Silvestro Aldobrandini | 17 September 1603 | Grandnephew | ||
| Giovanni Battista Deti | 3 March 1599 | Relative | ||
| Bonifazio Bevilacqua Aldobrandini | Adopted while already a cardinal on 3 April 1601 |
17th century
| Elevating pope | Cardinal-nephew | Date of elevation | Relationship | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Paul V (1605–1621) |
Scipione Borghese Caffarelli† | 18 July 1605 | Nephew | |
| Giambattista Leni | 24 November 1608 | Distant relative | ||
| Tiberio Muti | 2 December 1615 | Unknown | ||
| Gregory XV (1621–1623) |
Ludovico Ludovisi† | 15 February 1621 | Nephew | |
| Marcantonio Gozzadini | 21 July 1621 | Cousin | ||
| Urban VIII (1623–1644) |
Francesco Barberini† | 2 October 1623 | Nephew | |
| Lorenzo Magalotti | 7 October 1624 | Brother-in-law of Brother | ||
| Antonio Marcello Barberini | Brother | |||
| Antonio Barberini | 30 August 1627 | Nephew | ||
| Francesco Maria Macchiavelli | 6 December 1641 | Relative | ||
| Innocent X (1644–1655) |
Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili† | 14 November 1644 | Son of Innocent X's sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini | Resigned 21 January 1647 |
| Francesco Maidalchini† | 7 October 1647 | Nephew of Olimpia Maidalchini | ||
| Camillo Astalli† | 19 September 1650 | Cousin of Olimpia Maidalchini | Deprived of the title of nipote in February 1654 | |
| Alexander VII (1655–1667) |
Flavio Chigi† | 9 April 1657 | Nephew | |
| Antonio Bichi | Unknown | |||
| Clement IX (1667–1669) |
Giacomo Rospigliosi† | 12 December 1667 | Nephew | |
| Clement X (1670–1676) |
Paluzzo Paluzzi Altieri degli Albertoni† | 24 January 1664 (by Pope Alexander VII) |
Adopted while already a cardinal | |
| Vincenzo Maria Orsini | 22 February 1672 | Relative | Future Pope Benedict XIII | |
| Innocent XI (1676–1689) |
Carlo Stefano Anastasio Ciceri | 2 September 1686 | Distant relative | |
| Alexander VIII (1689–1691) |
Pietro Ottoboni† | 7 November 1689 | Grandnephew | |
| Giovanni Battista Rubini | 13 February 1690 | Unknown |
18th century
| Elevating pope | Cardinal-nephew | Date of elevation | Relationship | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clement XI (1700–1721) |
Annibale Albani | 23 December 1711 | Unknown | |
| Fabio Olivieri | 6 May 1715 | Cousin | ||
| Innocent XIII (1721–1724) |
Bernardo Maria Conti | 16 June 1721 | Brother | |
| Clement XII (1730–1740) |
Neri Maria Corsini | 14 August 1730 | Nephew | |
| Giovanni Antonio Guadagni | 24 September 1731 | Nephew on mother's side, son of Maddalena Corsini | ||
| Clement XIII (1758–1769) |
Carlo Rezzonico | 11 September 1758 | Nephew | |
| Pius VI (1775–1799) |
Giovanni Carlo Bandi | 29 May 1775 | Uncle | |
| Barnaba Chiaramonti | 14 February 1785 | Relative on his mother's side | Future Pope Pius VII | |
| Romualdo Braschi-Onesti | 18 December 1786 | Nephew |
19th century
| Elevating pope | Cardinal-nephew | Date of elevation | Relationship | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Leo XIII (1878–1903) |
Giuseppe Pecci | 12 May 1879 | Brother |
Footnotes
- ^ Until Pope Innocent XII, the only exceptions were popes who did not appoint the cardinals at all (Pope Pius III, Pope Marcellus II, Pope Urban VII, Pope Leo XI) and Pope Adrian VI (who appointed only one cardinal).
- ^ Miranda, citing older authors such as Alphonsus Ciacconius, says that Pope Anastasius IV (Corrado della Suburra) was probably a nephew of his elevator Honorius II; however, modern scholars are in agreement that Corrado was created by Paschalis II, and deny or do not mention his relationship with Honorius II.
- ^ Nephew to both Benedict VIII and John XIX
- ^ Several modern sources do not mention his cardinalate.
- ^ The source for the statement that Odon was nephew of Urban II is Ferdinando Ughelli (1594–1670), considered reliable by Klewitz because he was able to verify Ughelli's other statements concerning that cardinal. Date of his promotion is given according to Hüls, who does not mention this relationship.
- ^ Etienne de Bar, who was nephew of Callixtus II and bishop of Metz 1120–1163, is commonly identified with cardinal Stephanus of S. Maria Cosmedin, who appears in the papal bulls between 1120–1128, but Ganzer considers it erroneous that de Bar was a cardinal. Hüls also reject this identification and adds that cardinal Stephanus of S. Maria in Cosmedin was probably brother of cardinal Giovanni of Crema.
- ^ Brixius and Zenker say nothing of his origins, including any relationship to Innocent II
- ^ His relationship with Innocent II is not attested in the contemporary sources and nothing is known about his life except his first name (Petrus) and cardinalatial title (bishop of Albano).
- ^ Others deny his relationship with Lucius II.
- ^ There is a consensus that he was related to Lucius II, with the exception of Maleczek, who says that this is not attested in the contemporary sources.
- ^ Several sources doubt his promotion to the cardinalate indicating that he is confused with Cardinal Uberto Crivelli, future Pope Urban III, since they both are listed as cardinals of the title of S. Lorenzo in Damaso at the same time (1182–1185). Cardella affirms his cardinalate, but raises the possibility of confusion with Uberto Crivelli.
- ^ Both Maleczek and Miranda say that although many sources consider him a kinsman of Lucius III, this relationship is not proven.
- ^ The tradition of identifying Innocent III as nephew of Clement III may result from an onomastic confusion. Maleczek does not mention a relationship.
- ^ In older historiography, he is listed as Niccolò Boboni, nephew of Celestine III, created by this pope in 1191, but Kartusch and Maleczek cite two contemporary documents in which pope Celestine III explicitly calls him nephew of his predecessor Clement III.
- ^ Maleczek says that the theory that Giovanni di San Paolo was nephew of Celestine III is based on the very uncertain identification of the future cardinal with a papal subdeacon who served as legate in France ca. 1191 and is attested as nephew of Celestine III; therefore, the status of Giovanni di San Paolo as cardinal-nephew remains uncertain.
- ^ More recent genealogical research has cast the doubts on the tradition identifying him as nephew of Gregory IX. Maleczek indicates that he was "probably" a relative of Gregory IX.
- ^ Miranda adds that his promotion to the cardinalate is disputed. Paravicini Bagliani says that he was never promoted to the cardinalate.
- ^ Miranda adds that his promotion is dubious. Eubel explicitly denies that he was ever a cardinal.
- ^ Gihon and Miranda do not mention this relationship.