Loading

  • 21 Aug, 2019

  • By, Wikipedia

Triangulum I
The Triangulum Galaxy is a spiral galaxy 2.73 million light-years (ly) from Earth in the constellation Triangulum. It is catalogued as Messier 33 or NGC 598. With the D25 isophotal diameter of 18.74 kiloparsecs (61,100 light-years), the Triangulum Galaxy is the third-largest member of the Local Group of galaxies, behind the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way.

The galaxy is the second-smallest spiral galaxy in the Local Group after the Large Magellanic Cloud, which is a Magellanic-type spiral galaxy. It is believed to be a satellite of the Andromeda Galaxy or on its rebound into the latter due to their interactions, velocities, and proximity to one another in the night sky. It also has an H II nucleus.

Etymology

The galaxy gets its name from the constellation Triangulum, where it can be spotted.

It is sometimes informally referred to as the "Pinwheel Galaxy" by some astronomy references, in some computerized telescope software, and in some public outreach websites. However, the SIMBAD Astronomical Database, a professional database, collates formal designations for astronomical objects and indicates that Pinwheel Galaxy refers to Messier 101, which several amateur astronomy resources including public outreach websites identify by that name, and that is within the bounds of Ursa Major.

Visibility

Under exceptionally good viewing conditions with no light pollution, the Triangulum Galaxy can be seen by some people with the fully dark-adapted naked eye; to those viewers, it is the farthest permanent entity visible without magnification, being about half again as distant as Messier 31, the Andromeda Galaxy. It is a diffuse, or extended, object rather than a starlike point, even without magnification, because of its physical extent.

Its observability without optical aid ranges from being relatively easily seen by people using direct vision in deep rural locations under a dark, clear, transparent sky, to requiring use of averted vision by observers in locations beyond the suburbs in shallow rural areas under good viewing conditions. It is one of the reference objects of the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale.

Crumey has shown that although the total apparent V-magnitude of M33 is 5.72, it has an effective visual magnitude of approximately 6.6, meaning that a precondition for visibility is that the observer can see stars at least as faint as that latter figure. This is fainter than many people are able to see, even at a very dark site.

Observation history

The Triangulum Galaxy was probably discovered by the Italian astronomer Giovanni Battista Hodierna before 1654. In his work De systemate orbis cometici; deque admirandis coeli caracteribus ("About the systematics of the cometary orbit, and about the admirable objects of the sky"), he listed it as a cloud-like nebulosity or obscuration and gave the cryptic description, "near the Triangle hinc inde". This is in reference to the constellation Triangulum as a pair of triangles. The magnitude of the object matches M33, so it is most likely a reference to the Triangulum Galaxy.

The galaxy was independently discovered by Charles Messier on the night of August 25–26, 1764. It was published in his Catalog of Nebulae and Star Clusters (1771) as object number 33; hence the name M33. When William Herschel compiled his extensive catalog of nebulae, he was careful not to include most of the objects identified by Messier. However, M33 was an exception, and he cataloged this object on September 11, 1784, as H V-17.

Herschel also cataloged the Triangulum Galaxy's brightest and largest H II region (diffuse emission nebula containing ionized hydrogen) as H III.150 separately from the galaxy itself; the nebula eventually obtained NGC number 604. As seen from Earth, NGC 604 is located northeast of the galaxy's central core. It is one of the largest H II regions known, with a diameter of nearly 1500 light-years and a spectrum similar to that of the Orion Nebula. Herschel also noted three other smaller H II regions (NGC 588, 592, and 595).

It was among the first "spiral nebulae" identified as such by Lord Rosse in 1850. In 1922–23, John Charles Duncan and Max Wolf discovered variable stars in the nebulae. Edwin Hubble showed in 1926 that 35 of these stars were classical Cepheids, thereby allowing him to estimate their distances. The results were consistent with the concept of spiral nebulae being independent galactic systems of gas and dust, rather than just nebulae in the Milky Way.

  • NGC 604 in the Triangulum Galaxy
    NGC 604 in the Triangulum Galaxy
  • Composite of about 54 different pointings with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys[24]
    Composite of about 54 different pointings with Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys

Properties

The Triangulum Galaxy is the third largest member of the Local Group of galaxies. It has a diameter measured through the D25 standard - the isophote where the surface brightness of the galaxy reaches 25 mag/arcsec, to be about 18.74 kiloparsecs (61,100 light-years), making it roughly 70% the size of the Milky Way. It may be a gravitationally bound companion of the Andromeda Galaxy. Triangulum may be home to 40 billion stars, compared to 400 billion for the Milky Way and 1 trillion for Andromeda.

The disk of Triangulum has an estimated mass of (3–6) × 10 solar masses, while the gas component is about 3.2 × 10 solar masses. Thus, the combined mass of all baryonic matter in the galaxy may be 10 solar masses. The contribution of the dark matter component out to a radius of 55×10^ ly (17 kpc) is equivalent to about 5 × 10 solar masses.

Location – distance – motion

Triangulum (M33; lower left of center) and Andromeda Galaxy (M31; above center)

Estimates of the distance from the Milky Way to the Triangulum Galaxy range from 2,380×10^ to 3,070×10^ ly (730 to 940 kpc) (or 2.38 to 3.07 Mly), with most estimates since the year 2000 lying in the middle portion of this range, making it slightly more distant than the Andromeda Galaxy (at 2,540,000 light-years). At least three techniques have been used to measure distances to M 33. Using the Cepheid variable method, an estimate of 2,770×10^ ± 130×10^ ly (849 ± 40 kpc) was achieved in 2004. In the same year, the tip of the red-giant branch (TRGB) method was used to derive a distance estimate of 2,590×10^ ± 80×10^ ly (794 ± 25 kpc). The Triangulum Galaxy is around 750,000 light years from the Andromeda Galaxy.

In 2006, a group of astronomers announced the discovery of an eclipsing binary star in the Triangulum Galaxy. By studying the eclipses of the stars, astronomers were able to measure their sizes. Knowing the sizes and temperatures of the stars, they were able to measure the absolute magnitude of the stars. When the visual and absolute magnitudes are known, the distance to the star can be measured. The stars lie at the distance of 3,070×10^ ± 240×10^ ly (941 ± 74 kpc). The average of 102 distance estimates published since 1987 gives a distance modulus of 24.69, or .883 Mpc (2,878,000 light-years).

The Triangulum Galaxy is a source of H2O maser emission. In 2005, using observations of two water masers on opposite sides of Triangulum via the VLBA, researchers were for the first time able to estimate the angular rotation and proper motion of Triangulum. A velocity of 190 ± 60 km/s relative to the Milky Way was computed, which means Triangulum is moving towards Andromeda Galaxy and suggesting it may be a satellite of the larger galaxy (depending on their relative distances and margins of error).

In 2004, evidence was announced of a clumpy stream of hydrogen gas linking the Andromeda Galaxy with Triangulum, suggesting that the two may have tidally interacted in the past. This discovery was confirmed in 2011. A distance of less than 300 kiloparsecs between the two supports this hypothesis.

The Pisces Dwarf (LGS 3), one of the small Local Group member galaxies, is located 2,022×10^ ly (620 kpc) from the Sun. It is 20° from the Andromeda Galaxy and 11° from Triangulum. As LGS 3 lies at a distance of 913×10^ ly (280 kpc) from both galaxies, it could be a satellite galaxy of either Andromeda or Triangulum. LGS 3 has a core radius of 483 ly (148 pc) and 2.6 × 10 solar masses.

Pisces VII/Triangulum (Tri) III may be another satellite of Triangulum.

Structure

In the French astronomer Gérard de Vaucouleurs' revised Hubble Sandage (VRHS) system of galaxy morphological classification, the Triangulum Galaxy is classified as type SA(s)cd. The S prefix indicates that it is a disk-shaped galaxy with prominent arms of gas and dust that spiral out from the nucleus—what is commonly known as a spiral galaxy. The A is assigned when the galactic nucleus lacks a bar-shaped structure, in contrast to SB class barred spiral galaxies. American astronomer Allan Sandage's "(s)" notation is used when the spiral arms emerge directly from the nucleus or central bar, rather than from an inner ring as with an (r)-type galaxy. Finally, the cd suffix represents a stage along the spiral sequence that describes the openness of the arms. A rating of cd indicates relatively loosely wound arms.

This galaxy has an inclination of 54° to the line of sight from Earth, allowing the structure to be examined without significant obstruction by gas and dust. The disk of the Triangulum Galaxy appears warped out to a radius of about 8 kpc. There may be a halo surrounding the galaxy, but there is no bulge at the nucleus. This is an isolated galaxy and there are no indications of recent mergers or interactions with other galaxies, and it lacks the dwarf spheroidals or tidal tails associated with the Milky Way.

Triangulum is classified as unbarred, but an analysis of the galaxy's shape shows what may be a weak bar-like structure about the galactic nucleus. The radial extent of this structure is about 0.8 kpc.

The nucleus of this galaxy is an H II region, and it contains an ultraluminous X-ray source with an emission of 1.2 × 10 erg s, which is the most luminous source of X-rays in the Local Group of galaxies. This source is modulated by 20% over a 106-day cycle. However, the nucleus does not appear to contain a supermassive black hole, as a best-fit value of zero mass and an upper limit of 1,500 M☉ is placed on the mass of a central black hole based on models and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) data. This is significantly lower than the mass expected from the velocity dispersion of the nucleus and far below any mass predicted from the disk kinematics. This may suggest that supermassive black holes are associated only with galaxy bulges instead of with their disks. Assuming that the upper limit of the central black hole is correct, it would be rather an intermediate-mass black hole.

The inner part of the galaxy has two luminous spiral arms, along with multiple spurs that connect the inner to the outer spiral features. The main arms are designated IN (north) and IS (south).

Star formation

NGC 604, a star-forming region in the Triangulum Galaxy, as imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope

In the central 4′ region of this galaxy, atomic gas is being efficiently converted to molecular gas, resulting in a strong spectral emission of CO. This effect occurs as giant molecular clouds condense out of the surrounding interstellar medium. A similar process is taking place outside the central 4′, but at a less efficient pace. About 10% of the gas content in this galaxy is in the molecular form.

Star formation is taking place at a rate that is strongly correlated with local gas density, and the rate per unit area is higher than in the neighboring Andromeda Galaxy. (The rate of star formation is about 3.4 solar masses Gyr pc in the Triangulum Galaxy, compared to 0.74 in Andromeda.) The total integrated rate of star formation in the Triangulum Galaxy is about 0.45 ± 0.1 solar masses per year. It is uncertain whether this net rate is currently decreasing or remaining constant.

Based on analysis of the chemical composition of this galaxy, it appears to be divided into two distinct components with differing histories. The inner disk within a radius of 30×10^ ly (9 kpc) has a typical composition gradient that decreases linearly from the core. Beyond this radius, out to about 82×10^ ly (25 kpc), the gradient is much flatter. This suggests a different star formation history between the inner disk and the outer disk and halo, and may be explained by a scenario of "inside-out" galaxy formation. This occurs when gas is accumulated at large radii later in a galaxy's life space, while the gas at the core becomes exhausted. The result is a decrease in the average age of stars with increasing radius from the galaxy core.

Discrete features

Using infrared observations from the Spitzer Space Telescope, a total of 515 discrete candidate sources of 24 μm emission within the Triangulum Galaxy have been catalogued as of 2007. The brightest sources lie within the central region of the galaxy and along the spiral arms.

Many of the emission sources are associated with H II regions of star formation. The four brightest HII regions are designated NGC 588, NGC 592, NGC 595, and NGC 604. These regions are associated with molecular clouds containing (1.2–4) × 10 solar masses. The brightest of these regions, NGC 604, may have undergone a discrete outburst of star formation about three million years ago. This nebula is the second most luminous HII region within the Local Group of galaxies, at (4.5 ± 1.5) × 10 times the luminosity of the Sun. Other prominent HII regions in Triangulum include IC 132, IC 133, and IK 53.

The northern main spiral arm contains four large HII regions, while the southern arm has greater concentrations of young, hot stars. The estimated rate of supernova explosions in the Triangulum Galaxy is 0.06 Type Ia and 0.62 Type Ib/Type II per century. This is equivalent to a supernova explosion every 147 years, on average. As of 2008, a total of 100 supernova remnants have been identified in the Triangulum Galaxy, the majority of which lie in the southern half of the spiral galaxy. Similar asymmetries exist for H I and H II regions, plus highly luminous concentrations of massive, O type stars. The center of the distribution of these features is offset about two arc minutes to the southwest. M33 being a local galaxy, the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams (CBAT) tracks novae in it along with M31 and M81.

About 54 globular clusters have been identified in this galaxy, but the actual number may be 122 or more. The confirmed clusters may be several billion years younger than globular clusters in the Milky Way, and cluster formation appears to have increased during the past 100 million years. This increase is correlated with an inflow of gas into the center of the galaxy. The ultraviolet emission of massive stars in this galaxy matches the level of similar stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud.

In 2007, a black hole about 15.7 times the mass of the Sun was detected in this galaxy using data from the Chandra X-ray Observatory. The black hole, named M33 X-7, orbits a companion star which it eclipses every 3.5 days. It is the largest stellar mass black hole known.

Unlike the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies, the Triangulum Galaxy does not appear to have a supermassive black hole at its center. This may be because the mass of a galaxy's central supermassive black hole correlates with the size of the galaxy's central bulge, and unlike the Milky Way and Andromeda, the Triangulum Galaxy is a pure disk galaxy with no bulge.

Relationship with the Andromeda Galaxy

Triangulum on the collision paths of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies

As mentioned above, M33 is linked to M31 by several streams of neutral hydrogen and stars, which suggests that a past interaction between these two galaxies took place from 2 to 8 billion years ago, and a more violent encounter will occur 2.5 billion years in the future.

The fate of M33 was uncertain in 2009 beyond seeming to be linked to its larger neighbor M31. Suggested scenarios include being torn apart and absorbed by the greater companion, fueling the latter with hydrogen to form new stars; eventually exhausting all of its gas, and thus the ability to form new stars; or participating in the collision between the Milky Way and M31, likely ending up orbiting the merger product and fusing with it much later. Two other possibilities are a collision with the Milky Way before the Andromeda Galaxy arrives or an ejection out of the Local Group. Astrometric data from Gaia appears in 2019 to rule out the possibility that M33 and M31 are in orbit. If correct, M33 is on its first infall proper into the Andromeda Galaxy (M31).

See also

References

  1. ^ "M 33 – Galaxy". SIMBAD. Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 2009-11-28.
  2. ^ "Results for NGC 598". NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database. NASA/IPAC/JPL. Retrieved 2006-12-01.
  3. ^ U, Vivian; Urbaneja, Miguel A.; Kudritzki, Rolf-Peter; Jacobs, Bradley A.; Bresolin, Fabio; Przybilla, Norbert (2009). "A New Distance to M33 Using Blue Supergiants and the FGLR Method". The Astrophysical Journal. 704 (2): 1120–1134. arXiv:0909.0032. Bibcode:2009ApJ...704.1120U. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/704/2/1120. S2CID 14893769.
  4. ^ Corbelli, Edvige (June 2003). "Dark matter and visible baryons in M33". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 342 (1): 199–207. arXiv:astro-ph/0302318. Bibcode:2003MNRAS.342..199C. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06531.x. S2CID 119383732.
  5. ^ De Vaucouleurs, Gerard; De Vaucouleurs, Antoinette; Corwin, Herold G.; Buta, Ronald J.; Paturel, Georges; Fouque, Pascal (1991). Third Reference Catalogue of Bright Galaxies. Bibcode:1991rc3..book.....D.
  6. ^ Michon, Gerard P. "Sizing up the Universe - Stars, Sand and Nucleons". Retrieved 2010-01-07.
  7. ^ Ryden, Barbara; Peterson, Bradley M. (2010). Foundations of astrophysics. San Francisco: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-59558-4.
  8. ^ Brunthaler, Andreas; Reid, Mark J.; Falcke, Heino; Greenhill, Lincoln J.; et al. (2005). "The Geometric Distance and Proper Motion of the Triangulum Galaxy (M33)". Science. 307 (5714): 1440–1443. arXiv:astro-ph/0503058. Bibcode:2005Sci...307.1440B. doi:10.1126/science.1108342. PMID 15746420. S2CID 28172780.
  9. ^ Ho, Luis C.; Filippenko, Alexei V.; Sargent, Wallace L. W. (October 1997). "A Search for Dwarf Seyfert Nuclei. III. Spectroscopic Parameters and Properties of the Host Galaxies". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 112 (2): 315–390. arXiv:astro-ph/9704107. Bibcode:1997ApJS..112..315H. doi:10.1086/313041. ISSN 0067-0049. S2CID 17086638.
  10. ^ O'Meara, S. J. (1998). The Messier Objects. Cambridge: Cambridge University. ISBN 978-0-521-55332-2.
  11. ^ "NASA Spitzer Telescope Reveals Pinwheel Galaxy's Hidden Wonders". 2 June 2004. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
  12. ^ "SIMBAD Astronomical Database". Results for Messier 101. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
  13. ^ "Best of AOP: M101: Pinwheel Galaxy". Retrieved 2007-04-07.
  14. ^ Bortle, John E. (February 2001). "The Bortle Dark-Sky Scale". Retrieved 2010-01-07.
  15. ^ The following source lists it as the most distant object:
    Naeye, Robert (March 21, 2008). "A Stellar Explosion You Could See on Earth!". NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. Archived from the original on 2012-03-03. Retrieved 2010-04-13.
    However, the more distant galaxy Messier 81 has also been sighted with the naked eye:
    Christensen, Lars Lindberg; Zezas, Andreas; Noll, Keith; Villard, Ray (May 28, 2007). "Hubble photographs grand spiral galaxy Messier 81". ESA. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
  16. ^ Skiff, Brian (January 10, 1997). "Messier 81 naked-eye". sci.astro.amateur. Archived from the original on 2021-03-01. Retrieved 2010-02-11.
  17. ^ Crumey, Andrew (11 August 2014). "Human contrast threshold and astronomical visibility". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 442 (3): 2600–2619. arXiv:1405.4209. Bibcode:2014MNRAS.442.2600C. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu992. ISSN 1365-2966.
  18. ^ Weaver, Harold F. (October 1947). "The Visibility of Stars Without Optical Aid". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 59 (350): 232. Bibcode:1947PASP...59..232W. doi:10.1086/125956. ISSN 0004-6280. S2CID 51963530.
  19. ^ Fodera-Serio, G.; Indorato, L.; Nastasi, P. (February 1985). "Hodierna's Observations of Nebulae and his Cosmology". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 16 (1): 1–36. Bibcode:1985JHA....16....1F. doi:10.1177/002182868501600101. S2CID 118328541.
  20. ^ "Triangulum Galaxy Snapped by VST". www.eso.org. Retrieved 2021-05-16.
  21. ^ Jones, Kenneth Glyn (1991). Messier's nebulae and star clusters. The Practical astronomy handbook series (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 366. ISBN 978-0-521-37079-0.
  22. ^ Mullaney, James (2007). The Herschel objects and how to observe them. Astronomers' Observing Guides. Springer. pp. 16–17. Bibcode:2007hoho.book.....M. ISBN 978-0-387-68124-5.
  23. ^ Van den Bergh, Sidney (2000). The galaxies of the Local Group. Cambridge astrophysics series. Vol. 35. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-521-65181-3.
  24. ^ "Hubble takes gigantic image of the Triangulum Galaxy". www.spacetelescope.org. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
  25. ^ Bonanos, A. Z.; Stanek, K. Z.; Kudritzki; Macri; et al. (2006). "The First DIRECT Distance to a Detached Eclipsing Binary in M33". Astrophysics and Space Science. 304 (1–4): 207–209. Bibcode:2006Ap&SS.304..207B. doi:10.1007/s10509-006-9112-1. S2CID 123563673.
  26. ^ Magrini, Laura; Stanghellini, Letizia; Villaver, Eva (May 2009). "The Planetary Nebula Population of M33 and its Metallicity Gradient: A Look Into the Galaxy's Distant Past". The Astrophysical Journal. 696 (1): 729–740. arXiv:0901.2273. Bibcode:2009ApJ...696..729M. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/696/1/729. S2CID 5502295.
  27. ^ Karachentsev, I. D.; Karachentseva, V. E.; Hutchmeier, W. K.; Makarov, D. I. (2004). "A Catalog of Neighboring Galaxies". Astronomical Journal. 127 (4): 2031–2068. Bibcode:2004AJ....127.2031K. doi:10.1086/382905.
  28. ^ Karachentsev, I. D.; Kashibadze, O. G. (2006). "Masses of the local group and of the M81 group estimated from distortions in the local velocity field". Astrophysics. 49 (1): 3–18. Bibcode:2006Ap.....49....3K. doi:10.1007/s10511-006-0002-6. S2CID 120973010.
  29. ^ McConnachie, A. W.; Irwin, M. J.; Ferguson, A. M. N.; Ibata, R. A.; et al. (May 2004). "Determining the location of the tip of the red giant branch in old stellar populations: M33, Andromeda I and II". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 350 (1): 250. arXiv:astro-ph/0401453. Bibcode:2004MNRAS.350..243M. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07637.x. S2CID 18742035.
  30. ^ "Messier 33". SEDS Messier Catalog. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
  31. ^ "Your NED Search Results".
  32. ^ Zhang, J. S.; Henkel, C.; Guo, Q.; Wang, H. G.; et al. (2010). "On the Nuclear Obscuration of H2O Maser Galaxy". Astrophysical Journal. 708 (2): 1528–1536. arXiv:0912.2159. Bibcode:2010ApJ...708.1528Z. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/708/2/1528. S2CID 118467266.
  33. ^ Finley, Dave (June 11, 2012). "Neighbor galaxies may have brushed closely, astronomers find". National Radio Astronomy Observatory. Retrieved 2012-06-13.
  34. ^ Pawlowski, Marcel S.; Kroupa, Pavel; Jerjen, Helmut (November 2013). "Dwarf galaxy planes: the discovery of symmetric structures in the Local Group". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 435 (3): 1928–1957. arXiv:1307.6210. Bibcode:2013MNRAS.435.1928P. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1384. ISSN 1365-2966. S2CID 53991672.
  35. ^ Miller, Bryan W.; Dolphin, Andrew E.; Lee, Myung Gyoon; Kim, Sang Chul; et al. (December 2001). "The Star Formation History of LGS 3". The Astrophysical Journal. 562 (2): 713–726. arXiv:astro-ph/0108408. Bibcode:2001ApJ...562..713M. doi:10.1086/323853. S2CID 119089499.
  36. ^ Lazaro, Enrico de (18 November 2021). "Amateur Astronomer Discovers New Dwarf Galaxy". Sci.News.
  37. ^ Buta, Ronald James; Corwin, Harold G.; Odewahn, Stephen C. (2007). The de Vaucouleurs atlas of galaxies. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–16, 88. ISBN 978-0-521-82048-6.
  38. ^ Heyer, Mark H.; Corbelli, Edvige; Schneider, Stephen E.; Young, Judith S. (February 2004). "The Molecular Gas Distribution and Schmidt Law in M33". The Astrophysical Journal. 602 (2): 723–729. arXiv:astro-ph/0311226. Bibcode:2004ApJ...602..723H. doi:10.1086/381196. S2CID 119431862.
  39. ^ Verley, S.; Corbelli, E.; Giovanardi, C.; Hunt, L. K. (January 2009). "Star formation in M 33: multiwavelength signatures across the disk". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 493 (2): 453–466. arXiv:0810.0473. Bibcode:2009A&A...493..453V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810566. S2CID 14166884.
  40. ^ Cioni, Maria-Rosa L. (November 2009). "The metallicity gradient as a tracer of history and structure: the Magellanic Clouds and M33 galaxies". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 506 (3): 1137–1146. arXiv:0904.3136. Bibcode:2009A&A...506.1137C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200912138. S2CID 15459246.
  41. ^ Zloczewski, K.; Kaluzny, J.; Hartman, J. (March 2008). "Photometric Survey for Stellar Clusters in the Outer Part of M33". Acta Astronomica. 58: 23–39. arXiv:0805.4230. Bibcode:2008AcA....58...23Z.
  42. ^ Hernández-López, I.; Athanassoula, E.; Mújica, R.; Bosma, A. (November 2009). "M33: The existence of a bar". A Long Walk Through Astronomy: A Celebration of Luis Carrasco's 60th Birthday, Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica, Serie de Conferencias. Vol. 37. pp. 160–162. Bibcode:2009RMxAC..37..160H.
  43. ^ Dubus, G.; Charles, P. A.; Long, K. S. (October 2004). "High resolution Chandra X-ray imaging of the nucleus of M 33". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 425 (1): 95–98. arXiv:astro-ph/0406310. Bibcode:2004A&A...425...95D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041253. S2CID 15999734.
  44. ^ Gebhardt, Karl; Lauer, Tod R.; Krmendy, John; Pinkney, Jason; Bower, Gary A.; Green, Richard; Gull, Theodore; Hutchings, J.B.; Kaiser, M.E.; Nelson, Charles H. (November 2001). "M33: A Galaxy with No Supermassive Black Hole". Astronomical Journal. 122 (5): 2469–2476. arXiv:astro-ph/0107135. Bibcode:2001AJ....122.2469G. doi:10.1086/323481. S2CID 118864132.
  45. ^ Buczilowski, U. R. (October 1988). "A multifrequency radio continuum survey of M33. II – Thermal and non-thermal emission". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 205 (1–2): 29–40. Bibcode:1988A&A...205...29B.
  46. ^ Corbelli, E.; Verley, S.; Elmegreen, B. G.; Giovanardi, C. (February 2009). "The cluster birthline in M 33". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 495 (2): 479–490. arXiv:0901.1530. Bibcode:2009A&A...495..479C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200811086. S2CID 16880013.
  47. ^ Williams, Benjamin F.; Dalcanton, Julianne J.; Dolphin, Andrew E.; Holtzman, Jon; et al. (April 2009). "The Detection of Inside-Out Disk Growth in M33". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 695 (1): L15–L19. arXiv:0902.3460. Bibcode:2009ApJ...695L..15W. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/695/1/L15. S2CID 18357615.
  48. ^ Verley, S.; Hunt, L. K.; Corbelli, E.; Giovanardi, C. (December 2007). "Star formation in M 33: Spitzer photometry of discrete sources". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 476 (3): 1161–1178. arXiv:0709.2601. Bibcode:2007A&A...476.1161V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078179. S2CID 2909792.
  49. ^ Keel, William C.; Holberg, Jay B.; Treuthardt, Patrick M. (July 2004). "Far-Ultraviolet Spectroscopy of Star-forming Regions in Nearby Galaxies: Stellar Populations and Abundance Indicators". The Astronomical Journal. 128 (1): 211–223. arXiv:astro-ph/0403499. Bibcode:2004AJ....128..211K. doi:10.1086/421367. S2CID 18914205.
  50. ^ Tammann, G. A.; Loeffler, W.; Schroeder, A. (June 1994). "The Galactic supernova rate". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 92 (2): 487–493. Bibcode:1994ApJS...92..487T. doi:10.1086/192002.
  51. ^ Plucinsky, Paul P.; Williams, Benjamin; Long; Gaetz; et al. (February 2008). "Chandra ACIS Survey of M33 (ChASeM33): A First Look". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 174 (2): 366–378. arXiv:0709.4211. Bibcode:2008ApJS..174..366P. doi:10.1086/522942. S2CID 18857065.
  52. ^ David Bishop. "Extragalactic Novae". supernovae.net (International Supernovae Network). Archived from the original on 2010-04-08. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
  53. ^ Grebel, E. K. (November 2–5, 1999). "The Star Formation History of the Local Group". In F. Favata; A. Kaas; A. Wilson (eds.). Proceedings of the 33rd ESLAB symposium on star formation from the small to the large scale. Noordwijk, The Netherlands. arXiv:astro-ph/0005296. Bibcode:2000ESASP.445...87G.
  54. ^ Abubekerov, M. K.; Antokhina, E. A.; Bogomazov, A. I.; Cherepashchuk, A. M. (March 2009). "The mass of the black hole in the X-ray binary M33 X-7 and the evolutionary status of M33 X-7 and IC 10 X-1". Astronomy Reports. 53 (3): 232–242. arXiv:0906.3429. Bibcode:2009ARep...53..232A. doi:10.1134/S1063772909030056. S2CID 15487309.
  55. ^ Morcone, Jennifer (October 17, 2007). "Heaviest Stellar Black Hole Discovered in Nearby Galaxy". Chandra X-ray Observatory press release. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
  56. ^ Merritt, David; Ferrarese, Laura; Joseph, Charles L. (August 10, 2001). "No Supermassive Black Hole in M33?". Science. 293 (5532): 1116–1118. arXiv:astro-ph/0107359. Bibcode:2001Sci...293.1116M. doi:10.1126/science.1063896. PMID 11463879. S2CID 6777801.
  57. ^ "Milky Way's twin caught dismembering neighbour". New Scientist. Retrieved 2012-07-31.
  58. ^ Davidge, T. J.; McConnachie, A. W.; Fardal, M. A.; Fliri, J.; et al. (2012). "The Recent Stellar Archeology of M31 – The Nearest Red Disk Galaxy". The Astrophysical Journal. 751 (1): 74. arXiv:1203.6081. Bibcode:2012ApJ...751...74D. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/751/1/74. S2CID 59933737.
  59. ^ Bekki K. (October 2008). "Formation of a giant HI bridge between M31 and M33 from their tidal interaction". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters. 390 (1): L24–L28. arXiv:0807.1161. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.390L..24B. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2008.00528.x. S2CID 119090934.
  60. ^ Putman, M. E.; et al. (October 2009). "The Disruption and Fueling of M33". The Astrophysical Journal. 703 (2): 1486–1501. arXiv:0812.3093. Bibcode:2009ApJ...703.1486P. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/703/2/1486. S2CID 119310259.
  61. ^ van der Marel, Roeland P.; et al. (July 2012). "The M31 Velocity Vector. III. Future Milky Way-M31-M33 Orbital Evolution, Merging, and Fate of the Sun". The Astrophysical Journal. 753 (1): 9. arXiv:1205.6865. Bibcode:2012ApJ...753....9V. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/753/1/9. S2CID 53071454.
  62. ^ van der Marel, Roeland P.; et al. (7 February 2019). "First Gaia Dynamics of the Andromeda System: DR2 Proper Motions, Orbits, and Rotation of M31 and M33". The Astrophysical Journal. 872 (1): 24. arXiv:1805.04079. Bibcode:2019ApJ...872...24V. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab001b. S2CID 119011033.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Messier 33.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Triangulum_Galaxy&oldid=1260959423"