VOC Opperhoofden In Japan
VOC chief traders in Japan were the opperhoofden of the Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie; VOC) in Japan during the Edo period, when Japan was ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate.
Map of the bay of Hirado in 1621. Dutch East India Company trading post (Netherlands flag) on the upper right. East India Company (British flag) on the upper left. 
View circa 1699 of VOC compound at Hirado island, on the west coast of Kyūshū 
An imagined bird's-eye view of Dejima's layout and structures. Note the island's fan-shape. Japanese wood-block print made in 1780.
Hendrik Doeff and a Balinese servant in Dejima, Japanese painting 
Pieter Albert Bik, main Dutch chief in Japan, 1842–1845, by Johann Peter Berghaus
The Dutch word Opperhoofd (pl. opperhoofden, lit. 'supreme head[man]'), in its historical usage, is a gubernatorial title, comparable to the English name chief factor. It was a name for the chief executive officer of a Dutch factory, in the sense of trading post led by a factor, i.e. agent. The Japanese called the Dutch chief factors kapitan (from Portuguese capitão).
The Dutch East India Company was established in 1602 by the States-General of the Netherlands to carry out colonial activities in Asia. The VOC enjoyed unique success in Japan, in part because of the ways in which the character and other qualities of its opperhoofden were perceived to differ from other competitors.
Trading posts
Hirado, 1609–1639
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The first VOC trading outpost in Japan was on the island of Hirado off the coast of Kyūshū. Permission for establishing this permanent facility was granted in 1609 by the first Tokugawa-shōgun Ieyasu; but the right to make use of this convenient location was revoked in 1639.
Dejima, 1639–1860
In 1638, the harsh Sakoku ("closed door" policy) was ordered by the Tokugawa shogunate; and by 1641, the VOC had to transfer all of its mercantile operations to the small man-made island of Dejima in Nagasaki harbor. The island had been built for the Portuguese, but they had been forced to abandon it and all contacts with Japan. Only the Dutch were permitted to remain after all other Westerners had been excluded.
The Dutch presence in Japan was closely monitored and controlled. For example, each year the VOC had to transfer the opperhoofd. Each opperhoofd was expected to travel to Edo to offer tribute to the shogun (Dutch missions to Edo). The VOC traders had to be careful not to import anything religious; and they were not allowed to bring any women, nor to bury their dead ashore. They were largely free to do as they pleased on the island; but they were explicitly ordered to work on Sunday.
For nearly 200 years a series of VOC traders lived, worked and seemed to thrive in this confined location.
In 1799 the VOC went bankrupt. The trade with Japan was continued by the Dutch Indian government at Batavia, with an interruption during the English occupation of Java, during which the English (Stamford Raffles) unsuccessfully tried to capture Dejima. After the creation of the Kingdom of The Netherlands (1815) the trade with Japan came under the administration of the Minister of the Colonies by way of the Governor General in Batavia. The directors of the trade (Opperhoofd) became colonial civil servants. From 1855 the director of the trade with Japan, Janus Henricus Donker Curtius, became "Dutch Commissioner in Japan" with orders to conclude a treaty with Japan. He succeeded in 1855 to conclude a convention, changed into a treaty in January 1856. In 1857 he concluded a commercial paragraph in addition to the treaty of 1856, thus concluding the first western treaty of friendship and commerce with Japan. His successor, Jan Karel de Wit was Dutch Consul General in Japan, though still a colonial civil servant. In 1862 the Dutch representation in Japan was transferred to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. This change was effected in Japan in 1863, Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek becoming Consul General and Political Agent in Japan.
List of chief traders at Hirado
Hirado is a small island just off the western shore of the Japanese island of Kyūshū. In the early 17th century, Hirado was a major center of foreign trade and included British, Chinese, and other trading stations along with the Dutch one, maintained and operated by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) after 1609. The serial leaders of this VOC trading enclave or factory at Hirado were:
| Name | Start | End | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jacques Specx | 20 September 1609 | 28 August 1612 | — |
| Hendrick Brouwer | 28 August 1612 | 6 August 1614 | — |
| Jacques Specx | 6 August 1614 | 29 October 1621 | — |
| Leonardt Camps | 29 October 1621 | 21 November 1623 | — |
| Cornelis van Nijenrode | 21 November 1623 | 1631 | — |
| Pieter Stamper | 1631 | 1631 | — |
| Cornelis van Nijenrode | 1631 | 31 January 1633 | — |
| Pieter van Sante | 31 January 1633 | 6 September 1633 | — |
| Nicolaes Couckebacker | 6 September 1633 | 1635 | |
| Maerten Wesselingh (or Hendrick Hagenaer) |
1635 | 1637 | — |
| Nicolaes Couckebacker | 1637 | 3 February 1639 | |
| François Caron | 3 February 1639 | 13 February 1641 |
List of chief traders at Dejima
Dejima (出島) was a fan-shaped artificial island in the bay of Nagasaki. This island was a Dutch trading post during Japan's period of maritime restrictions (海禁, kaikin, 1641–1853) during the Edo period. The serial leaders of this VOC trading factory at Dejima were:
| Name | Start | End | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Maximiliaen Le Maire | 14 February 1641 | 30 October 1641 | |
| Jan van Elseracq | 1 November 1641 | 29 October 1642 | |
| Pieter Anthoniszoon Overtwater | 29 October 1642 | 1 August 1643 | |
| Jan van Elseracq | 1 August 1643 | 24 November 1644 | |
| Pieter Anthonijszoon Overtwater | 24 November 1644 | 30 November 1645 | |
| Renier van Tzum | 30 November 1645 | 27 October 1646 | |
| Willem Verstegen [Versteijen] | 28 October 1646 | 10 October 1647 | |
| Frederick Coyett | 3 November 1647 | 9 December 1648 | |
| Dircq Snoecq | 9 December 1648 | 5 November 1649 | |
| Anthony van Brouckhorst | 5 November 1649 | 25 October 1650 | — |
| Pieter Sterthemius | 25 October 1650 | 3 November 1651 | — |
| Adriaen van der Burgh | 1 November 1651 | 3 November 1652 | — |
| Frederick Coyett | 4 November 1652 | 10 November 1653 | — |
| Gabriel Happart | 4 November 1653 | 31 October 1654 | — |
| Leonard Winninx | 31 October 1654 | 23 October 1655 | — |
| Joan Boucheljon | 23 October 1655 | 1 November 1656 | — |
| Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener] | 1 November 1656 | 27 October 1657 | — |
| Johannes Bouchelion | 27 October 1657 | 23 October 1658 | — |
| Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener] | 22 October 1658 | 4 November 1659 | — |
| Johannes Bouchelion | 4 November 1659 | 26 October 1660 | — |
| Hendrick Indijck | 26 October 1660 | 21 November 1661 | — |
| Dirck van Lier | 11 November 1661 | 6 November 1662 | — |
| Hendrick Indijck | 6 November 1662 | 20 October 1663 | — |
| Willem Volger | 20 October 1663 | 7 November 1664 | — |
| Jacob Gruijs | 7 November 1664 | 27 October 1665 | — |
| Willem Volger | 28 October 1665 | 27 October 1666 | — |
| Daniel Six | 18 October 1666 | 6 November 1667 | — |
| Constantin Ranst de Jonge | 6 November 1667 | 25 October 1668 | — |
| Daniel Six [Sicx] | 25 October 1668 | 14 October 1669 | — |
| François de Haze | 14 October 1669 | 2 November 1670 | — |
| Martinus Caesar | 2 November 1670 | 12 November 1671 | — |
| Johannes Camphuys | 22 October 1671 | 12 November 1672 | |
| Martinus Caesar | 13 November 1672 | 29 October 1673 | — |
| Johannes Camphuys | 29 October 1673 | 19 October 1674 | |
| Martinus Caesar | 20 October 1674 | 7 November 1675 | — |
| Johannes Camphuys | 7 November 1675 | 27 October 1676 | |
| Dirck de Haze | 27 October 1676 | 16 October 1677 | — |
| Albert Breevinck | 16 October 1677 | 4 November 1678 | — |
| Dirck de Haas | 4 November 1678 | 24 October 1679 | — |
| Albert Breevinck | 24 October 1679 | 11 November 1680 | — |
| Isaac van Schinne | 11 November 1680 | 31 October 1681 | — |
| Hendrick Canzius | 31 October 1681 | 20 October 1682 | — |
| Andreas Cleyer | 20 October 1682 | 8 November 1683 | |
| Constantin Ranst de Jonge | 8 November 1683 | 28 October 1684 | — |
| Hendrick van Buijtenhem | 25 October 1684 | 7 October 1685 | |
| Andreas Cleyer | 17 October 1685 | 5 November 1686 | |
| Constantin Ranst de Jonge | 5 November 1686 | 25 October 1687 | — |
| Hendrick van Buijtenhem | 25 October 1687 | 13 October 1688 | |
| Cornelis van Outhoorn | 13 October 1688 | 1 November 1689 | — |
| Balthasar Sweers | 1 November 1689 | 21 October 1690 | — |
| Hendrick van Buijtenhem | 21 October 1690 | 9 November 1691 | |
| Cornelis van Outhoorn | 9 November 1691 | 29 October 1692 | — |
| Hendrick van Buijtenhem | 29 October 1692 | 19 October 1693 | |
| Gerrit de Heere | 19 October 1693 | 7 November 1694 | — |
| Hendrik Dijkman | 7 November 1694 | 27 October 1695 | — |
| Cornelis van Outhoorn | 27 October 1695 | 15 October 1696 | — |
| Hendrik Dijkman | 15 October 1696 | 3 November 1697 | — |
| Pieter de Vos | 3 November 1697 | 23 October 1698 | — |
| Hendrik Dijkman | 23 October 1698 | 12 October 1699 | — |
| Pieter de Vos | 21 October 1699 | 31 October 1700 | — |
| Hendrik Dijkman | 31 October 1700 | 21 October 1701 | — |
| Abraham Douglas | 21 October 1701 | 30 October 1702 | — |
| Ferdinand de Groot | 9 November 1702 | 30 October 1703 | — |
| Gideon Tant | 30 October 1703 | 18 October 1704 | — |
| Ferdinand de Groot | 18 October 1704 | 6 November 1705 | — |
| Ferdinand de Groot | 26 October 1706 | 15 October 1707 | — |
| Hermanus Menssingh | 15 October 1707 | 2 November 1708 | — |
| Jasper van Mansdale | 2 November 1708 | 22 October 1709 | — |
| Hermanus Menssingh | 22 October 1709 | 10 November 1710 | — |
| Nicolaas Joan van Hoorn | 10 November 1710 | 31 October 1711 | — |
| Cornelis Lardijn | 31 October 1711 | 7 November 1713 | — |
| Cornelis Lardijn | 7 November 1713 | 27 October 1714 | — |
| Nicolaas Joan van Hoorn | 27 October 1714 | 19 October 1715 | — |
| Gideon Boudaen | 19 October 1715 | 3 November 1716 | — |
| Joan Aouwer | 3 November 1716 | 24 October 1717 | — |
| Christiaen van Vrijbergh[e] | 24 October 1717 | 13 October 1718 | — |
| Joan Aouwer | 13 October 1718 | 21 October 1720 | — |
| Roeloff Diodati | 21 October 1720 | 9 November 1721 | — |
| Hendrik Durven | 9 November 1721 | 18 October 1723 | — |
| Johannes Thedens | 18 October 1723 | 25 October 1725 | — |
| Joan de Hartogh | 25 October 1725 | 15 October 1726 | — |
| Pieter Boockestijn | 15 October 1726 | 3 November 1727 | — |
| Abraham Minnedonk | 3 November 1727 | 20 October 1728 | — |
| Pieter Boockestijn | 22 October 1728 | 12 October 1729 | — |
| Abraham Minnedonk | 12 October 1729 | 31 October 1730 | — |
| Pieter Boockestijn | 31 October 1730 | 7 November 1732 | — |
| Hendrik van de Bel | 7 November 1732 | 27 October 1733 | — |
| Rogier de Laver | 27 October 1733 | 16 October 1734 | — |
| David Drinckman | 16 October 1734 | 4 November 1735 | — |
| Bernardus Coop [Coopa] à Groen | 4 November 1735 | 24 October 1736 | — |
| Jan van der Cruijsse | 24 October 1736 | 13 October 1737 | — |
| Gerardus Bernardus Visscher | 13 October 1737 | 21 October 1739 | — |
| Thomas van Rhee | 22 October 1739 | 8 November 1740 | — |
| Jacob van der Waeijen | 9 November 1740 | 28 October 1741 | — |
| Thomas van Rhee | 29 October 1741 | 17 October 1742 | — |
| Jacob van der Waeijen | 17 October 1742 | 9 November 1743 | — |
| David Brouwer | 5 November 1743 | 1 November 1744 | — |
| Jacob van der Waeijen | 2 November 1744 | 28 December 1745 | — |
| Jan Louis de Win | 30 December 1745 | 2 November 1746 | — |
| Jacob Baelde | 3 November 1746 | 25 October 1747 | — |
| Jan Louis de Win | 28 October 1747 | 11 November 1748 | — |
| Jacob Baelde | 12 November 1748 | 8 December 1749 | — |
| Hendrik van Homoed | 8 December 1749 | 24 December 1750 | — |
| Abraham van Suchtelen | 25 December 1750 | 18 November 1751 | — |
| Hendrik van Homoed | 19 November 1751 | 5 December 1752 | — |
| David Boelen | 6 December 1752 | 15 October 1753 | — |
| Hendrik van Homoed | 16 October 1753 | 3 November 1754 | — |
| David Boelen | 4 November 1754 | 25 October 1755 | — |
| Herbert Vermeulen | 25 October 1755 | 12 October 1756 | — |
| David Boelen | 13 October 1756 | 31 October 1757 | — |
| Herbert Vermeulen | 1 November 1757 | 11 November 1758 | — |
| Johannes Reijnouts | 12 November 1758 | 11 November 1760 | — |
| Marten Huijshoorn | 12 November 1760 | 30 October 1761 | — |
| Johannes Reijnouts | 31 October 1761 | 2 December 1762 | — |
| Fredrik Willem Wineke | 3 December 1762 | 6 November 1763 | — |
| Jan Crans | 7 November 1763 | 24 October 1764 | — |
| Fredrik Willem Wineke | 25 October 1764 | 7 November 1765 | — |
| Jan Crans | 8 November 1765 | 31 October 1766 | — |
| Herman Christiaan Kastens | 1 November 1766 | 20 October 1767 | — |
| Jan Crans | 21 October 1767 | 8 November 1769 | — |
| Olphert Elias | 9 November 1769 | 16 November 1770 | — |
| Daniel Armenault | 17 November 1770 | 9 November 1771 | — |
| Arend Willem Feith | 10 November 1771 | 3 November 1772 | — |
| Daniel Armenault [Almenaault] | 4 November 1772 | 22 November 1773 | — |
| Arend Willem Feith | 23 November 1773 | 10 November 1774 | — |
| Daniel Armenault [Almenaault] | 11 November 1774 | 28 October 1775 | — |
| Arend Willem Feith | 28 October 1775 | 22 November 1776 | — |
| Hendrik Godfried Duurkoop | 23 November 1776 | 11 November 1777 | — |
| Arend Willem Feith | 12 November 1777 | 28 November 1779 | — |
| Isaac Titsingh | 29 November 1779 | 5 November 1780 | — |
| Arend Willem Feith | 6 November 1780 | 23 November 1781 | — |
| Isaac Titsingh | 24 November 1781 | 26 October 1783 | — |
| Hendrik Caspar Romberg | 27 October 1783 | August 1784 | — |
| Isaac Titsingh | August 1784 | 30 November 1784 | — |
| Hendrik Caspar Romberg | 30 November 1784 | 21 November 1785 | — |
| Johan Fredrik van Rheede tot de Parkeler | 22 November 1785 | 20 November 1786 | — |
| Hendrik Caspar Romberg | 21 November 1786 | 30 November 1787 | — |
| Johan Frederik van Rheede tot de Parkeler | 1 December 1787 | 1 August 1789 | — |
| Hendrik Casper Romberg | 1 August 1789 | 13 November 1790 | — |
| Petrus Theodorus Chassé | 13 November 1790 | 13 November 1792 | — |
| Gijsbert Hemmij | 13 November 1792 | 8 July 1798 | — |
| Leopold Willem Ras | 8 July 1798 | 17 July 1800 | — |
| Willem Wardenaar | 16 July 1800 | 14 November 1803 | — |
| Hendrik Doeff | 14 November 1803 | 6 December 1817 | — |
| Jan Cock Blomhoff | 6 December 1817 | 20 November 1823 | — |
| Johan Willem de Sturler | 20 November 1823 | 5 August 1826 | — |
| Germain Felix Meijlan | 4 August 1826 | 1 November 1830 | — |
| Jan Willem Frederik van Citters | 1 November 1830 | 30 November 1834 | — |
| Johannes Erdewin Niemann | 1 December 1834 | 17 November 1838 | — |
| Eduard Grandisson | 18 November 1838 | November 1842 | — |
| Pieter Albert Bik | November 1842 | 31 October 1845 | — |
| Joseph Henrij Levijssohn | 1 November 1845 | 31 October 1850 | — |
| Frederik Cornelis Rose | 1 November 1850 | 31 October 1852 | — |
| Janus Henricus Donker Curtius | 2 November 1852 | 28 February 1860 | — |
See also
- Rangaku – Dutch studies
- The Thousand Autumns of Jacob de Zoet
References
- ^ Historigraphical Institute (Shiryō hensan-jo), University of Tokyo, "Diary of Nicolaes Couckebacker"; retrieved 1 February 2013.
- ^ Shiryō, "Diary of Nicolaes Couckebacker"; retrieved 1 February 2013.
- ^ Dejima opperhoofden chronology; Caron chronology Archived 17 January 2005 at the Wayback Machine (in German); Boxer, Charles Ralph, ed. (1935). A True Description of the Mighty Kingdoms of Japan & Siam. p. lxii; Shiryō, "Diary of François Caron"; retrieved 1 February 2013.
- ^ Shiryō, "Diary of Maximiliaen Le Maire"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
- ^ Shiryō, "Diary of Jan van Elseracq"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
- ^ Shiryō, "Diary of Pieter Anthonisz Overtwater"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
- ^ Shiryō, "Diary of Pieter Jan van Elseracq"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
- ^ Shiryō, "Diary of Pieter Anthonisz Overtwater"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
- ^ Shiryō, "Diary of Renier van Tzum"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
- ^ Shiryō, "Diary of Willem Verstegen"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
- ^ Shiryō, "Diary of Frederick Coyet"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
- ^ Shiryō, "Diary of Dircq Snoecq"; retrieved 2013-2-1.
- ^ Kornicki, Peter F. "European Japanology at the End of the Seventeenth Century," Bulletin of School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Vol. 56, No. 3 (1993). pp. 510.
- ^ Kornicki, p. 507.
Sources
- Blomhoff, J.C. (2000). The Court Journey to the Shogun of Japan: From a Private Account by Jan Cock Blomhoff. Amsterdam.
- Blussé, L. et al., eds. (1995–2001) The Deshima [sic] Dagregisters: Their Original Tables of Content. Leiden.
- Blussé, L. et al., eds. (2004). The Deshima Diaries Marginalia 1740–1800. Tokyo.
- Boxer. C.R. (1950). Jan Compagnie in Japan, 1600–1850: An Essay on the Cultural, Artistic, and Scientific Influence Exercised by the Hollanders in Japan from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Centuries. Den Haag.
- Caron, F. (1671). A True Description of the Mighty Kingdoms of Japan and Siam. London.
- Clulow, A. (2014). The Company and the Shogun: The Dutch Encounters with Tokugawa Japan. New York.
- (in Dutch) de Winter, Michiel. (2006). "VOC in Japan: Betrekkingen tussen Hollanders en Japanners in de Edo-periode, tussen 1602–1795" ("VOC in Japan: Relations between the Dutch and Japanese in the Edo-period, between 1602–1795").
- Doeff, H. (1633). Herinneringen uit Japan. Amsterdam. [Doeff, H. "Recollections of Japan" ISBN 1-55395-849-7]
- Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibition catalog. (2000). A Very Unique Collection of Historical Significance: The Kapitan (the Dutch Chief) Collection from the Edo Period—The Dutch Fascination with Japan. Catalog of "400th Anniversary Exhibition Regarding Relations between Japan and the Netherlands," a joint project of the Edo-Tokyo Museum, the City of Nagasaki, the National Museum of Ethnology, the National Natuurhistorisch Museum" and the National Herbarium of the Netherlands in Leiden, the Netherlands. Tokyo.
- Leguin, F. (2002). Isaac Titsingh (1745–1812): Een passie voor Japan, leven en werk van de grondlegger van de Europese Japanologie. Leiden.
- Nederland's Patriciaat, Vol. 13 (1923). Den Haag.
- Screech, Timon. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822. London.
- Siebold, P.F.B. v. (1897). Nippon. Würzburg e Leipzig.
- Titsingh, I. (1820). Mémoires et Anecdotes sur la Dynastie régnante des Djogouns, Souverains du Japon. Paris.
- Titsingh, I. (1822). Illustrations of Japan; consisting of Private Memoirs and Anecdotes of the reigning dynasty of The Djogouns, or Sovereigns of Japan. London.
Further reading
- Camfferman, Kees; Terry E. Cooke (2001). "Dutch accounting in Japan 1609–1850: isolation or observation?". Accounting, Business & Financial History. 11 (3): 369–382. doi:10.1080/713757323. S2CID 154446686. - Published online on 18 October 2010
Sources and external links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to VOC Opperhoofden in Japan.
- Original list of opperhoofden (in Dutch)
- Dejima: The Island Comes Back to Life
- A map of Deshima
- At the bottom you will also find an image of Deshima
- WorldStatesmen – Japan
32°44′37″N 129°52′23″E / 32.743525°N 129.873022°E
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